Human Osteology

/in /by

Name: ________________________________________ Section: ___________

ANT 3514C – Introduction to Biological Anthropology

Lab 4: Human Osteology
Use Appendix A of Your Textbook as a Guide. You may also refer to the following websites for this lab and any that follow: http://www.eskeletons.org/, http://

humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/3d-collection, and https://human.biodigital.com/ (for this website you will need to create an account but it is free!)
Lab Objectives:

• Apply positional terminology to describe the relationships of osteological features

• Identify and label the largest bones and features of the human skull and skeleton

• Identify the human dental formula and different tooth types

• Examine the functional implications of different skeletal regions

• Understand the dynamic biology of the human skeleton over an individual’s lifespan

Purpose: To provide an introduction to basic osteological knowledge.

Osteology is the detailed study of bones and teeth. It should come as no surprise that for many centuries people have been heavily invested in studying human anatomy for its medical applications. The fundamentals of human anatomy were understood by most ancient civilizations, and the study of anatomy in Western universities – even through the Middle Ages – was founded on the antique writings of the Greek physician Aelius Galenus (“Galen”) from the late 100’s A.D. Ironically, the laws of the Roman Empire that Galen served forbade the dissection of human beings, and therefore his anatomical descriptions were based not on the direct study of humans, but rather the comparative study of animals such as pigs and primates. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that intellectual curiosity in the human body was reborn and the study of human anatomy was pursued again in earnest. Principal among these anatomists were figures such as Henry Gray (of “Gray’s Anatomy”) and Georges Cuvier, who pushed the study of comparative anatomy to new limits and founded the field of paleontology.

While the skeleton plays an obvious role as the support system for the rest of the body—making movement possible, and protecting vital organs like the heart, lungs, and brain—a new understanding is emerging of bones as an important, dynamic organ of the body. Your bones achieve their shape thanks to the influence of the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves that surround them, but continue to change throughout life in response to activity, nutrition, and disease. In addition to vital metabolic and physiological functions, bones produce a hormone (an important messaging molecule in the body) named osteocalcin that plays a vital role in your body’s ability to maintain healthy blood sugar, regulate testosterone levels, and stave off depression.

Despite its deep roots in the study of anatomy, human osteology, especially in terms of variation and development, is still the subject of much new research utilizing state-of-the-art methods. Bone histology, laser scanning, computed tomography, and strain analyses are just some of the newest techniques used at both the micro and macro scale to examine the properties of human bone from every angle. Using such powerful methods, biological anthropologists are able to answer questions about human identity, ancestry, lifestyle, development, and evolution from studying bones alone

STATION 1: Anatomical Directions/Planes

Observe the articulated human and macaque skeletons, both in anatomical position, to answer the following questions. The definitions of these terms always have the same meaning, but the direction they point in will change based on an animal’s normal posture. For instance, think about how you, a biped, normally stand vs. a quadruped, like a dog (or a horse, or a baboon).

!

Anatomical Plane Definitions:

• Coronal Plane:

Divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.

• Sagittal Plane:

Divides the body into left and right halves.

• Transverse Plane:

Divides the body into superior and inferior halves

Use the definitions on page 2 of this lab to answer the following questions about the articulated human and macaque skeletons: (1 pt)

!

A is ______________________ or ______________________ to B on the human skeleton.

C is ______________________ or ______________________ to D on the macaque skeleton.

F is ______________________ to G on both the macaque and human skeleton.

The blue line runs along the ________________________ plane of the human skeleton.

STATION 2: Skull

The skull plays an important role in understanding evolutionary history. (1.25 pts)

( Photo credit: eskeletons.org )

!

Name the three sutures marked with #s. Name the three bones marked with letters.

1. _______________________________ A. _______________________________

2. _______________________________ B. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ C. _______________________________

4. Which two bones make up the zygomatic arch?

STATION 3: Dentition

Because teeth preserve well in the fossil/archaeological record, they are often used in constructing phylogenetic relationships among living and extinct organisms. (1.25 pts) Examine the following pictures and answer the following questions.

!

!

1. What are the four human tooth types?

2. What is the human dental formula? Please write out in the standard order.

3. Name the bone that holds the upper teeth and the bone that holds the lower teeth.

STATION 4: Vertebral Column

Examine the vertebral column. There are 24 movable vertebrae – 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx are fused vertebrae and form part of the bony pelvis. (0.5 pt) Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kweC-1XCoY.

!

1. The vertebrae bear body weight, anchor ligaments and muscles, and protect the spinal cord. What is the name of the repeating structure that separates each unfused vertebra?

2. Which group of vertebrae articulates with the ribs?

STATION 5: Pelvis

The human pelvis protects and supports abdominal organs, while anchoring muscles of the abdomen and lower limb. It is an area that provides critical information on locomotion patterns and sex determination. (1 pt)

1. Which three bones fuse to form the os coxa? Underline the bone on which you sit.

2. Just observe the ball-and-socket hip joint. Notice how the femoral head articulates with the acetabulum in this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnMPHoDGEc). You will see how this joint looks different from the shoulder joint in Station 6. (No written response is required here.)

STATION 6: Upper limb

Observe the provided specimen and the articulated skeleton near this station when answering these questions. (1.5 pts)

!

1. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your pinkie? _________________ 2. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your thumb? _________________

3. A) List the two bones that, along with the humerus, form the shoulder joint.

B) Name the two features of the distal humerus that articulate with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.

4. Compare the shoulder joint (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pjk_yW-JsU) to the hip joint in Station 5.

STATION 7: Hands & Feet

Compare the articulated hand (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/hands/ bone/Articulated%20hand) and foot (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/ feet/bone/Articulated%20foot) . The rays or digits are numbered one through five beginning with the thumb or big toe. (0.5 pt)

!

1. What are some of the differences you observe between the hand and the foot? How can these differences be attributed to function?

Reading Assignment: Ruff CB (2006) Gracilization of the modern human skeleton. American Scientist 94(6): 508-514. (2 pts)

Do not copy from the text without proper quotation marks and attribution.

1. Define the following terms as they apply to skeletal material. Be sure your definitions make sense in an osteological context:

a. Robust:

b. Gracile:

2. Describe how bone properties change during the normal aging process throughout a modern human lifespan. (You can draw a diagram illustrating this if you wish, but if you do its meaning must be clear to receive credit.) Note that there are two phases to describe: 1) bone growth as the individual grows to maturity, and 2) bone degeneration in old age.

3. What cultural explanations have been used to account for the gracilization of the human skeleton during our recent evolution?

After Lab Activity: (1 pt)

Use Appendix A of your text and the following terms list to label the skeleton.

Sternum

Frontal

Parietal

Mandible

Metatarsals

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Patella

Tibia

Ulna

Fibula

Metacarpals

Os Coxa (also innominate bone)

Femur

Carpals

Tarsals

Radius

Vertebra

Phalanges (use this term twice)

! Name: ________________________________________ Section: ___________

ANT 3514C – Introduction to Biological Anthropology

Lab 4: Human Osteology
Use Appendix A of Your Textbook as a Guide. You may also refer to the following websites for this lab and any that follow: http://www.eskeletons.org/, http://

humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/3d-collection, and https://human.biodigital.com/ (for this website you will need to create an account but it is free!)
Lab Objectives:

• Apply positional terminology to describe the relationships of osteological features

• Identify and label the largest bones and features of the human skull and skeleton

• Identify the human dental formula and different tooth types

• Examine the functional implications of different skeletal regions

• Understand the dynamic biology of the human skeleton over an individual’s lifespan

Purpose: To provide an introduction to basic osteological knowledge.

Osteology is the detailed study of bones and teeth. It should come as no surprise that for many centuries people have been heavily invested in studying human anatomy for its medical applications. The fundamentals of human anatomy were understood by most ancient civilizations, and the study of anatomy in Western universities – even through the Middle Ages – was founded on the antique writings of the Greek physician Aelius Galenus (“Galen”) from the late 100’s A.D. Ironically, the laws of the Roman Empire that Galen served forbade the dissection of human beings, and therefore his anatomical descriptions were based not on the direct study of humans, but rather the comparative study of animals such as pigs and primates. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that intellectual curiosity in the human body was reborn and the study of human anatomy was pursued again in earnest. Principal among these anatomists were figures such as Henry Gray (of “Gray’s Anatomy”) and Georges Cuvier, who pushed the study of comparative anatomy to new limits and founded the field of paleontology.

While the skeleton plays an obvious role as the support system for the rest of the body—making movement possible, and protecting vital organs like the heart, lungs, and brain—a new understanding is emerging of bones as an important, dynamic organ of the body. Your bones achieve their shape thanks to the influence of the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves that surround them, but continue to change throughout life in response to activity, nutrition, and disease. In addition to vital metabolic and physiological functions, bones produce a hormone (an important messaging molecule in the body) named osteocalcin that plays a vital role in your body’s ability to maintain healthy blood sugar, regulate testosterone levels, and stave off depression.

Despite its deep roots in the study of anatomy, human osteology, especially in terms of variation and development, is still the subject of much new research utilizing state-of-the-art methods. Bone histology, laser scanning, computed tomography, and strain analyses are just some of the newest techniques used at both the micro and macro scale to examine the properties of human bone from every angle. Using such powerful methods, biological anthropologists are able to answer questions about human identity, ancestry, lifestyle, development, and evolution from studying bones alone

STATION 1: Anatomical Directions/Planes

Observe the articulated human and macaque skeletons, both in anatomical position, to answer the following questions. The definitions of these terms always have the same meaning, but the direction they point in will change based on an animal’s normal posture. For instance, think about how you, a biped, normally stand vs. a quadruped, like a dog (or a horse, or a baboon).

!

Anatomical Plane Definitions:

• Coronal Plane:

Divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.

• Sagittal Plane:

Divides the body into left and right halves.

• Transverse Plane:

Divides the body into superior and inferior halves

Use the definitions on page 2 of this lab to answer the following questions about the articulated human and macaque skeletons: (1 pt)

!

A is ______________________ or ______________________ to B on the human skeleton.

C is ______________________ or ______________________ to D on the macaque skeleton.

F is ______________________ to G on both the macaque and human skeleton.

The blue line runs along the ________________________ plane of the human skeleton.

STATION 2: Skull

The skull plays an important role in understanding evolutionary history. (1.25 pts)

( Photo credit: eskeletons.org )

!

Name the three sutures marked with #s. Name the three bones marked with letters.

1. _______________________________ A. _______________________________

2. _______________________________ B. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ C. _______________________________

4. Which two bones make up the zygomatic arch?

STATION 3: Dentition

Because teeth preserve well in the fossil/archaeological record, they are often used in constructing phylogenetic relationships among living and extinct organisms. (1.25 pts) Examine the following pictures and answer the following questions.

!

!

1. What are the four human tooth types?

2. What is the human dental formula? Please write out in the standard order.

3. Name the bone that holds the upper teeth and the bone that holds the lower teeth.

STATION 4: Vertebral Column

Examine the vertebral column. There are 24 movable vertebrae – 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx are fused vertebrae and form part of the bony pelvis. (0.5 pt) Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kweC-1XCoY.

!

1. The vertebrae bear body weight, anchor ligaments and muscles, and protect the spinal cord. What is the name of the repeating structure that separates each unfused vertebra?

2. Which group of vertebrae articulates with the ribs?

STATION 5: Pelvis

The human pelvis protects and supports abdominal organs, while anchoring muscles of the abdomen and lower limb. It is an area that provides critical information on locomotion patterns and sex determination. (1 pt)

1. Which three bones fuse to form the os coxa? Underline the bone on which you sit.

2. Just observe the ball-and-socket hip joint. Notice how the femoral head articulates with the acetabulum in this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnMPHoDGEc). You will see how this joint looks different from the shoulder joint in Station 6. (No written response is required here.)

STATION 6: Upper limb

Observe the provided specimen and the articulated skeleton near this station when answering these questions. (1.5 pts)

!

1. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your pinkie? _________________ 2. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your thumb? _________________

3. A) List the two bones that, along with the humerus, form the shoulder joint.

B) Name the two features of the distal humerus that articulate with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.

4. Compare the shoulder joint (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pjk_yW-JsU) to the hip joint in Station 5.

STATION 7: Hands & Feet

Compare the articulated hand (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/hands/ bone/Articulated%20hand) and foot (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/ feet/bone/Articulated%20foot) . The rays or digits are numbered one through five beginning with the thumb or big toe. (0.5 pt)

!

1. What are some of the differences you observe between the hand and the foot? How can these differences be attributed to function?

Reading Assignment: Ruff CB (2006) Gracilization of the modern human skeleton. American Scientist 94(6): 508-514. (2 pts)

Do not copy from the text without proper quotation marks and attribution.

1. Define the following terms as they apply to skeletal material. Be sure your definitions make sense in an osteological context:

a. Robust:

b. Gracile:

2. Describe how bone properties change during the normal aging process throughout a modern human lifespan. (You can draw a diagram illustrating this if you wish, but if you do its meaning must be clear to receive credit.) Note that there are two phases to describe: 1) bone growth as the individual grows to maturity, and 2) bone degeneration in old age.

3. What cultural explanations have been used to account for the gracilization of the human skeleton during our recent evolution?

After Lab Activity: (1 pt)

Use Appendix A of your text and the following terms list to label the skeleton.

Sternum

Frontal

Parietal

Mandible

Metatarsals

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Patella

Tibia

Ulna

Fibula

Metacarpals

Os Coxa (also innominate bone)

Femur

Carpals

Tarsals

Radius

Vertebra

Phalanges (use this term twice)

! Name: ________________________________________ Section: ___________

ANT 3514C – Introduction to Biological Anthropology

Lab 4: Human Osteology
Use Appendix A of Your Textbook as a Guide. You may also refer to the following websites for this lab and any that follow: http://www.eskeletons.org/, http://

humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/3d-collection, and https://human.biodigital.com/ (for this website you will need to create an account but it is free!)
Lab Objectives:

• Apply positional terminology to describe the relationships of osteological features

• Identify and label the largest bones and features of the human skull and skeleton

• Identify the human dental formula and different tooth types

• Examine the functional implications of different skeletal regions

• Understand the dynamic biology of the human skeleton over an individual’s lifespan

Purpose: To provide an introduction to basic osteological knowledge.

Osteology is the detailed study of bones and teeth. It should come as no surprise that for many centuries people have been heavily invested in studying human anatomy for its medical applications. The fundamentals of human anatomy were understood by most ancient civilizations, and the study of anatomy in Western universities – even through the Middle Ages – was founded on the antique writings of the Greek physician Aelius Galenus (“Galen”) from the late 100’s A.D. Ironically, the laws of the Roman Empire that Galen served forbade the dissection of human beings, and therefore his anatomical descriptions were based not on the direct study of humans, but rather the comparative study of animals such as pigs and primates. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that intellectual curiosity in the human body was reborn and the study of human anatomy was pursued again in earnest. Principal among these anatomists were figures such as Henry Gray (of “Gray’s Anatomy”) and Georges Cuvier, who pushed the study of comparative anatomy to new limits and founded the field of paleontology.

While the skeleton plays an obvious role as the support system for the rest of the body—making movement possible, and protecting vital organs like the heart, lungs, and brain—a new understanding is emerging of bones as an important, dynamic organ of the body. Your bones achieve their shape thanks to the influence of the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves that surround them, but continue to change throughout life in response to activity, nutrition, and disease. In addition to vital metabolic and physiological functions, bones produce a hormone (an important messaging molecule in the body) named osteocalcin that plays a vital role in your body’s ability to maintain healthy blood sugar, regulate testosterone levels, and stave off depression.

Despite its deep roots in the study of anatomy, human osteology, especially in terms of variation and development, is still the subject of much new research utilizing state-of-the-art methods. Bone histology, laser scanning, computed tomography, and strain analyses are just some of the newest techniques used at both the micro and macro scale to examine the properties of human bone from every angle. Using such powerful methods, biological anthropologists are able to answer questions about human identity, ancestry, lifestyle, development, and evolution from studying bones alone

STATION 1: Anatomical Directions/Planes

Observe the articulated human and macaque skeletons, both in anatomical position, to answer the following questions. The definitions of these terms always have the same meaning, but the direction they point in will change based on an animal’s normal posture. For instance, think about how you, a biped, normally stand vs. a quadruped, like a dog (or a horse, or a baboon).

!

Anatomical Plane Definitions:

• Coronal Plane:

Divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.

• Sagittal Plane:

Divides the body into left and right halves.

• Transverse Plane:

Divides the body into superior and inferior halves

Use the definitions on page 2 of this lab to answer the following questions about the articulated human and macaque skeletons: (1 pt)

!

A is ______________________ or ______________________ to B on the human skeleton.

C is ______________________ or ______________________ to D on the macaque skeleton.

F is ______________________ to G on both the macaque and human skeleton.

The blue line runs along the ________________________ plane of the human skeleton.

STATION 2: Skull

The skull plays an important role in understanding evolutionary history. (1.25 pts)

( Photo credit: eskeletons.org )

!

Name the three sutures marked with #s. Name the three bones marked with letters.

1. _______________________________ A. _______________________________

2. _______________________________ B. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ C. _______________________________

4. Which two bones make up the zygomatic arch?

STATION 3: Dentition

Because teeth preserve well in the fossil/archaeological record, they are often used in constructing phylogenetic relationships among living and extinct organisms. (1.25 pts) Examine the following pictures and answer the following questions.

!

!

1. What are the four human tooth types?

2. What is the human dental formula? Please write out in the standard order.

3. Name the bone that holds the upper teeth and the bone that holds the lower teeth.

STATION 4: Vertebral Column

Examine the vertebral column. There are 24 movable vertebrae – 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx are fused vertebrae and form part of the bony pelvis. (0.5 pt) Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kweC-1XCoY.

!

1. The vertebrae bear body weight, anchor ligaments and muscles, and protect the spinal cord. What is the name of the repeating structure that separates each unfused vertebra?

2. Which group of vertebrae articulates with the ribs?

STATION 5: Pelvis

The human pelvis protects and supports abdominal organs, while anchoring muscles of the abdomen and lower limb. It is an area that provides critical information on locomotion patterns and sex determination. (1 pt)

1. Which three bones fuse to form the os coxa? Underline the bone on which you sit.

2. Just observe the ball-and-socket hip joint. Notice how the femoral head articulates with the acetabulum in this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnMPHoDGEc). You will see how this joint looks different from the shoulder joint in Station 6. (No written response is required here.)

STATION 6: Upper limb

Observe the provided specimen and the articulated skeleton near this station when answering these questions. (1.5 pts)

!

1. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your pinkie? _________________ 2. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your thumb? _________________

3. A) List the two bones that, along with the humerus, form the shoulder joint.

B) Name the two features of the distal humerus that articulate with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.

4. Compare the shoulder joint (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pjk_yW-JsU) to the hip joint in Station 5.

STATION 7: Hands & Feet

Compare the articulated hand (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/hands/ bone/Articulated%20hand) and foot (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/ feet/bone/Articulated%20foot) . The rays or digits are numbered one through five beginning with the thumb or big toe. (0.5 pt)

!

1. What are some of the differences you observe between the hand and the foot? How can these differences be attributed to function?

Reading Assignment: Ruff CB (2006) Gracilization of the modern human skeleton. American Scientist 94(6): 508-514. (2 pts)

Do not copy from the text without proper quotation marks and attribution.

1. Define the following terms as they apply to skeletal material. Be sure your definitions make sense in an osteological context:

a. Robust:

b. Gracile:

2. Describe how bone properties change during the normal aging process throughout a modern human lifespan. (You can draw a diagram illustrating this if you wish, but if you do its meaning must be clear to receive credit.) Note that there are two phases to describe: 1) bone growth as the individual grows to maturity, and 2) bone degeneration in old age.

3. What cultural explanations have been used to account for the gracilization of the human skeleton during our recent evolution?

After Lab Activity: (1 pt)

Use Appendix A of your text and the following terms list to label the skeleton.

Sternum

Frontal

Parietal

Mandible

Metatarsals

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Patella

Tibia

Ulna

Fibula

Metacarpals

Os Coxa (also innominate bone)

Femur

Carpals

Tarsals

Radius

Vertebra

Phalanges (use this term twice)

! Name: ________________________________________ Section: ___________

ANT 3514C – Introduction to Biological Anthropology

Lab 4: Human Osteology
Use Appendix A of Your Textbook as a Guide. You may also refer to the following websites for this lab and any that follow: http://www.eskeletons.org/, http://

humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/3d-collection, and https://human.biodigital.com/ (for this website you will need to create an account but it is free!)
Lab Objectives:

• Apply positional terminology to describe the relationships of osteological features

• Identify and label the largest bones and features of the human skull and skeleton

• Identify the human dental formula and different tooth types

• Examine the functional implications of different skeletal regions

• Understand the dynamic biology of the human skeleton over an individual’s lifespan

Purpose: To provide an introduction to basic osteological knowledge.

Osteology is the detailed study of bones and teeth. It should come as no surprise that for many centuries people have been heavily invested in studying human anatomy for its medical applications. The fundamentals of human anatomy were understood by most ancient civilizations, and the study of anatomy in Western universities – even through the Middle Ages – was founded on the antique writings of the Greek physician Aelius Galenus (“Galen”) from the late 100’s A.D. Ironically, the laws of the Roman Empire that Galen served forbade the dissection of human beings, and therefore his anatomical descriptions were based not on the direct study of humans, but rather the comparative study of animals such as pigs and primates. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that intellectual curiosity in the human body was reborn and the study of human anatomy was pursued again in earnest. Principal among these anatomists were figures such as Henry Gray (of “Gray’s Anatomy”) and Georges Cuvier, who pushed the study of comparative anatomy to new limits and founded the field of paleontology.

While the skeleton plays an obvious role as the support system for the rest of the body—making movement possible, and protecting vital organs like the heart, lungs, and brain—a new understanding is emerging of bones as an important, dynamic organ of the body. Your bones achieve their shape thanks to the influence of the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves that surround them, but continue to change throughout life in response to activity, nutrition, and disease. In addition to vital metabolic and physiological functions, bones produce a hormone (an important messaging molecule in the body) named osteocalcin that plays a vital role in your body’s ability to maintain healthy blood sugar, regulate testosterone levels, and stave off depression.

Despite its deep roots in the study of anatomy, human osteology, especially in terms of variation and development, is still the subject of much new research utilizing state-of-the-art methods. Bone histology, laser scanning, computed tomography, and strain analyses are just some of the newest techniques used at both the micro and macro scale to examine the properties of human bone from every angle. Using such powerful methods, biological anthropologists are able to answer questions about human identity, ancestry, lifestyle, development, and evolution from studying bones alone

STATION 1: Anatomical Directions/Planes

Observe the articulated human and macaque skeletons, both in anatomical position, to answer the following questions. The definitions of these terms always have the same meaning, but the direction they point in will change based on an animal’s normal posture. For instance, think about how you, a biped, normally stand vs. a quadruped, like a dog (or a horse, or a baboon).

!

Anatomical Plane Definitions:

• Coronal Plane:

Divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.

• Sagittal Plane:

Divides the body into left and right halves.

• Transverse Plane:

Divides the body into superior and inferior halves

Use the definitions on page 2 of this lab to answer the following questions about the articulated human and macaque skeletons: (1 pt)

!

A is ______________________ or ______________________ to B on the human skeleton.

C is ______________________ or ______________________ to D on the macaque skeleton.

F is ______________________ to G on both the macaque and human skeleton.

The blue line runs along the ________________________ plane of the human skeleton.

STATION 2: Skull

The skull plays an important role in understanding evolutionary history. (1.25 pts)

( Photo credit: eskeletons.org )

!

Name the three sutures marked with #s. Name the three bones marked with letters.

1. _______________________________ A. _______________________________

2. _______________________________ B. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ C. _______________________________

4. Which two bones make up the zygomatic arch?

STATION 3: Dentition

Because teeth preserve well in the fossil/archaeological record, they are often used in constructing phylogenetic relationships among living and extinct organisms. (1.25 pts) Examine the following pictures and answer the following questions.

!

!

1. What are the four human tooth types?

2. What is the human dental formula? Please write out in the standard order.

3. Name the bone that holds the upper teeth and the bone that holds the lower teeth.

STATION 4: Vertebral Column

Examine the vertebral column. There are 24 movable vertebrae – 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx are fused vertebrae and form part of the bony pelvis. (0.5 pt) Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kweC-1XCoY.

!

1. The vertebrae bear body weight, anchor ligaments and muscles, and protect the spinal cord. What is the name of the repeating structure that separates each unfused vertebra?

2. Which group of vertebrae articulates with the ribs?

STATION 5: Pelvis

The human pelvis protects and supports abdominal organs, while anchoring muscles of the abdomen and lower limb. It is an area that provides critical information on locomotion patterns and sex determination. (1 pt)

1. Which three bones fuse to form the os coxa? Underline the bone on which you sit.

2. Just observe the ball-and-socket hip joint. Notice how the femoral head articulates with the acetabulum in this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnMPHoDGEc). You will see how this joint looks different from the shoulder joint in Station 6. (No written response is required here.)

STATION 6: Upper limb

Observe the provided specimen and the articulated skeleton near this station when answering these questions. (1.5 pts)

!

1. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your pinkie? _________________ 2. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your thumb? _________________

3. A) List the two bones that, along with the humerus, form the shoulder joint.

B) Name the two features of the distal humerus that articulate with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.

4. Compare the shoulder joint (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pjk_yW-JsU) to the hip joint in Station 5.

STATION 7: Hands & Feet

Compare the articulated hand (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/hands/ bone/Articulated%20hand) and foot (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/ feet/bone/Articulated%20foot) . The rays or digits are numbered one through five beginning with the thumb or big toe. (0.5 pt)

!

1. What are some of the differences you observe between the hand and the foot? How can these differences be attributed to function?

Reading Assignment: Ruff CB (2006) Gracilization of the modern human skeleton. American Scientist 94(6): 508-514. (2 pts)

Do not copy from the text without proper quotation marks and attribution.

1. Define the following terms as they apply to skeletal material. Be sure your definitions make sense in an osteological context:

a. Robust:

b. Gracile:

2. Describe how bone properties change during the normal aging process throughout a modern human lifespan. (You can draw a diagram illustrating this if you wish, but if you do its meaning must be clear to receive credit.) Note that there are two phases to describe: 1) bone growth as the individual grows to maturity, and 2) bone degeneration in old age.

3. What cultural explanations have been used to account for the gracilization of the human skeleton during our recent evolution?

After Lab Activity: (1 pt)

Use Appendix A of your text and the following terms list to label the skeleton.

Sternum

Frontal

Parietal

Mandible

Metatarsals

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Patella

Tibia

Ulna

Fibula

Metacarpals

Os Coxa (also innominate bone)

Femur

Carpals

Tarsals

Radius

Vertebra

Phalanges (use this term twice)

! Name: ________________________________________ Section: ___________

ANT 3514C – Introduction to Biological Anthropology

Lab 4: Human Osteology
Use Appendix A of Your Textbook as a Guide. You may also refer to the following websites for this lab and any that follow: http://www.eskeletons.org/, http://

humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/3d-collection, and https://human.biodigital.com/ (for this website you will need to create an account but it is free!)
Lab Objectives:

• Apply positional terminology to describe the relationships of osteological features

• Identify and label the largest bones and features of the human skull and skeleton

• Identify the human dental formula and different tooth types

• Examine the functional implications of different skeletal regions

• Understand the dynamic biology of the human skeleton over an individual’s lifespan

Purpose: To provide an introduction to basic osteological knowledge.

Osteology is the detailed study of bones and teeth. It should come as no surprise that for many centuries people have been heavily invested in studying human anatomy for its medical applications. The fundamentals of human anatomy were understood by most ancient civilizations, and the study of anatomy in Western universities – even through the Middle Ages – was founded on the antique writings of the Greek physician Aelius Galenus (“Galen”) from the late 100’s A.D. Ironically, the laws of the Roman Empire that Galen served forbade the dissection of human beings, and therefore his anatomical descriptions were based not on the direct study of humans, but rather the comparative study of animals such as pigs and primates. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that intellectual curiosity in the human body was reborn and the study of human anatomy was pursued again in earnest. Principal among these anatomists were figures such as Henry Gray (of “Gray’s Anatomy”) and Georges Cuvier, who pushed the study of comparative anatomy to new limits and founded the field of paleontology.

While the skeleton plays an obvious role as the support system for the rest of the body—making movement possible, and protecting vital organs like the heart, lungs, and brain—a new understanding is emerging of bones as an important, dynamic organ of the body. Your bones achieve their shape thanks to the influence of the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves that surround them, but continue to change throughout life in response to activity, nutrition, and disease. In addition to vital metabolic and physiological functions, bones produce a hormone (an important messaging molecule in the body) named osteocalcin that plays a vital role in your body’s ability to maintain healthy blood sugar, regulate testosterone levels, and stave off depression.

Despite its deep roots in the study of anatomy, human osteology, especially in terms of variation and development, is still the subject of much new research utilizing state-of-the-art methods. Bone histology, laser scanning, computed tomography, and strain analyses are just some of the newest techniques used at both the micro and macro scale to examine the properties of human bone from every angle. Using such powerful methods, biological anthropologists are able to answer questions about human identity, ancestry, lifestyle, development, and evolution from studying bones alone

STATION 1: Anatomical Directions/Planes

Observe the articulated human and macaque skeletons, both in anatomical position, to answer the following questions. The definitions of these terms always have the same meaning, but the direction they point in will change based on an animal’s normal posture. For instance, think about how you, a biped, normally stand vs. a quadruped, like a dog (or a horse, or a baboon).

!

Anatomical Plane Definitions:

• Coronal Plane:

Divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.

• Sagittal Plane:

Divides the body into left and right halves.

• Transverse Plane:

Divides the body into superior and inferior halves

Use the definitions on page 2 of this lab to answer the following questions about the articulated human and macaque skeletons: (1 pt)

!

A is ______________________ or ______________________ to B on the human skeleton.

C is ______________________ or ______________________ to D on the macaque skeleton.

F is ______________________ to G on both the macaque and human skeleton.

The blue line runs along the ________________________ plane of the human skeleton.

STATION 2: Skull

The skull plays an important role in understanding evolutionary history. (1.25 pts)

( Photo credit: eskeletons.org )

!

Name the three sutures marked with #s. Name the three bones marked with letters.

1. _______________________________ A. _______________________________

2. _______________________________ B. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ C. _______________________________

4. Which two bones make up the zygomatic arch?

STATION 3: Dentition

Because teeth preserve well in the fossil/archaeological record, they are often used in constructing phylogenetic relationships among living and extinct organisms. (1.25 pts) Examine the following pictures and answer the following questions.

!

!

1. What are the four human tooth types?

2. What is the human dental formula? Please write out in the standard order.

3. Name the bone that holds the upper teeth and the bone that holds the lower teeth.

STATION 4: Vertebral Column

Examine the vertebral column. There are 24 movable vertebrae – 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx are fused vertebrae and form part of the bony pelvis. (0.5 pt) Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kweC-1XCoY.

!

1. The vertebrae bear body weight, anchor ligaments and muscles, and protect the spinal cord. What is the name of the repeating structure that separates each unfused vertebra?

2. Which group of vertebrae articulates with the ribs?

STATION 5: Pelvis

The human pelvis protects and supports abdominal organs, while anchoring muscles of the abdomen and lower limb. It is an area that provides critical information on locomotion patterns and sex determination. (1 pt)

1. Which three bones fuse to form the os coxa? Underline the bone on which you sit.

2. Just observe the ball-and-socket hip joint. Notice how the femoral head articulates with the acetabulum in this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnMPHoDGEc). You will see how this joint looks different from the shoulder joint in Station 6. (No written response is required here.)

STATION 6: Upper limb

Observe the provided specimen and the articulated skeleton near this station when answering these questions. (1.5 pts)

!

1. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your pinkie? _________________ 2. Which bone of the lower arm is on the same side as your thumb? _________________

3. A) List the two bones that, along with the humerus, form the shoulder joint.

B) Name the two features of the distal humerus that articulate with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.

4. Compare the shoulder joint (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pjk_yW-JsU) to the hip joint in Station 5.

STATION 7: Hands & Feet

Compare the articulated hand (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/hands/ bone/Articulated%20hand) and foot (http://www.eskeletons.org/boneviewer/nid/12537/region/ feet/bone/Articulated%20foot) . The rays or digits are numbered one through five beginning with the thumb or big toe. (0.5 pt)

!

1. What are some of the differences you observe between the hand and the foot? How can these differences be attributed to function?

Reading Assignment: Ruff CB (2006) Gracilization of the modern human skeleton. American Scientist 94(6): 508-514. (2 pts)

Do not copy from the text without proper quotation marks and attribution.

1. Define the following terms as they apply to skeletal material. Be sure your definitions make sense in an osteological context:

a. Robust:

b. Gracile:

2. Describe how bone properties change during the normal aging process throughout a modern human lifespan. (You can draw a diagram illustrating this if you wish, but if you do its meaning must be clear to receive credit.) Note that there are two phases to describe: 1) bone growth as the individual grows to maturity, and 2) bone degeneration in old age.

3. What cultural explanations have been used to account for the gracilization of the human skeleton during our recent evolution?

After Lab Activity: (1 pt)

Use Appendix A of your text and the following terms list to label the skeleton.

Sternum

Frontal

Parietal

Mandible

Metatarsals

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Patella

Tibia

Ulna

Fibula

Metacarpals

Os Coxa (also innominate bone)

Femur

Carpals

Tarsals

Radius

Vertebra

Phalanges (use this term twice)

! V

 
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Characteristics of our species and the role we play in our ecosystem

/in /by

Where do we fit in?

This week you are exploring the characteristics of our species and the role we play in our ecosystem. Two terms commonly used to describe an organism’s place in the environment is their “habitat” and their “niche.” A habitat is defined as an area inhabited by particular species. A niche is defined as the role (job), activities and resources used by an organism. For example, a polar bear’s habitat is the arctic whereas its niche is to swim, eat fish, walruses and seals, and to take care of polar bear cubs. Have you ever considered the characteristics of your habitat and niche or thought about what might happen if you were forced to move and occupy another habitat, and switch to another niche? This Assignment will give you the opportunity to compare and contrast your current habitat and niche with an assigned niche (described below).

Your essay should include:

  • A description of your personal habitat and your assigned habitat highlighting the similarities and differences.
  • A description of your personal niche and of your assigned niche highlighting the similarities and differences.
  • Consider what characteristics would provide a survival advantage to you or to the individuals who currently occupy each niche and habitat.
  • How have humans adapted to the two habitats and niches?
  • What difficulties might you have living in the assigned niche and why?
  • What types of cultural adaptations have evolved from living in your niche? Your assigned niche? What are the benefits and challenges of these cultural adaptations?
  • Your discussion should consider any biological adaptations as well; things such as dealing with food spoilage, insect vector control, food and waterborne illnesses, etc.
  • Consider the organism you have been assigned to study in your assigned niche. Would you classify it as a biotic or an abiotic component of the environment? Explain your reasoning by applying the characteristics of life covered in Chapter One.

Letter of last name: Assigned Niche

A-G

An Ecologist Studying Polar Bear Behavior in the Arctic

H-N

An Ecologist Studying Sloth Behavior in the Tropical Rainforest

O-T

An Ecologist Studying Cheetah Behavior in the Saharan Desert

U-Z

An Ecologist Studying Saimaa Ringed Seal Behavior in the Boreal Forest of Finland

 
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Biology Photosynthesis Lab

/in /by

Exercise 10

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Student Learning Outcomes At the completion of this exercise you should: (1) Be able to define the following linear metric system units: meter, centimeter, millimeter,

micrometer, nanometer, and Angstrom. (2) Be able to describe, using both nanometers and color descriptions, the wavelengths of

sunlight that the human eye can see. (3) Be able to describe how the “paper chromatography” technique can be used to separate out

the different pigments present in plant leaves. (4) Be able to describe, using both nanometers and color descriptions, the most important

wavelength of sunlight used in photosynthesis. (5) Be able to describe an experimental design that could be used to measure the relationship

between light intensity and the rate of photosynthesis. (6) Be able to diagram the summary equation for photosynthesis. I. The Nature of Light Striking the Surface of a Leaf Sunlight is a relatively small but very important part of the vast electromagnetic spectrum of energy. Visible light, together with a small amount of invisible radiation at its boundaries, is the only part of this spectrum which is useful to life. Close examination of visible natural light reveals that it, too, contains a spectrum, which is revealed to our eyes in the colors of a rainbow. Two physical properties of light are of special interest to biologists: wavelength and energy. Procedure: 1. Point the slit end of the #125 Wabash Spectroscope at a white light source, such as a

small light bulb. The prism within the spectroscope will separate the various wavelengths (colors) of which the white light is composed.

 

 

 

2. The spectrum of visible light and the wavelengths of the colors can be seen when you

look through the eyepiece. Each white numbered marking denotes the wavelength of the color above it. The wavelength is the actual length of a wave of light of that color, measured in units called angstroms (Ă…).

 

Table 1. Metric System: Length Measurement Units

Quantity Numerical Value English Equivalent Converting to Metric kilometer (km) 1,000 m 1 km = 0.62 mile 1 mile = 1.609 km

meter (m) 100 cm 1 m = 3.28 feet

= 1.09 yard 1 yard = 0.914 m 1 foot = .305 m

centimeter (cm) 0.01 m 1cm = 0.394 inch 1 foot = 30.5 cm

millimeter (mm) 0.001 m 1 mm = 0.039 inch 1 inch = 2.54 cm

micrometer (1 µm), also called a “micron (µ)”

0.000001 m

nanometer (nm), also called a “millimicron(mµ)”

0.000000001 m

angstrom (Ă…) 0.0000000001 m

*Note: In other sources, you will sometimes see another unit, the nanometer (nm), used to measure wavelength. Each nanometer is equal to ten angstroms: for example, 7000 Ă…=700 nm. Although both the angstrom and the nanometer are used to measure wavelength, the nanometer is currently the more frequently used unit.

 

 

 

Question 1. Using Table 1, complete the following:

a. There are _________ centimeters (cm) in a meter (m).

b. There are _________ millimeters (mm) in a meter (m).

c. There are _________ micrometers (microns or µm) in a meter (m).

d. There are _________ nanometers (nm) in a meter (m).

e. There are _________ Angstroms (Ă…) in a meter (m). Question 2. Look at the chart on the wall. It gives nanometer (nm), rather than angstroms as the until of wavelength. Since one nanometer is equal to 10 angstroms, 3500 (Ă…) = 350 nm. Write down the wavelengths in nanometers, using this simple conversion. Nanometer is currently the more frequently used unit.

 

 

 

In the table below, arrange the six visible light colors in a sequence starting with the one with the shortest wavelength and ending with the color with the longest wavelength. Also, indicate the approximate wavelengths of the colors. You will fill in the last column using the information in the next question.

Wavelength Observed Color

Approximate Range of

Wavelengths (nm)

Relative Energy

Shortest 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Longest 6. Question 3. It is known that shorter wavelength light possesses more energy than longer wavelengths. Indicate in the table in, Question 2, which color has the highest energy and which color has the lowest energy. II. The Photosynthetic Pigments Pigments are light absorbing substances. They are useful to humans in decoration because they absorb certain wavelengths and reflect others, thus coloring our environment. In this case, we appreciate the pigments for the energy they reflect to our eyes. Plants contain several pigments, e. g., chlorophyll, each pigment having its own light absorbing qualities. The colors which we see on plants represent the wavelengths reflected by their pigments. Today the absorbed light is the more important to us, since this energy is used to produce glucose through photosynthesis. As time passes, energy absorbed by plant pigments flows through the entire food web, providing energy for nearly all forms of life.

A. Pigment Extraction from Grass Leaves: Procedure: (Steps 1 – 4 to be done by the biology technician)

1. Place a handful of lawn grass in a fireproof blender with enough acetone to allow the blender to do its work.

2. Filter the extract through two layers of facial tissue which have been placed in a glass funnel over a flask. Fold the tissues over the top and squeeze the extracted pigment from the grass.

3. Label the flask “Pigment Extract from Grass Leaves.” 4. Place a small quantity of the pigment extract (1″- 2″ deep) into a test tube.

 

 

(Step 5 to be done by students or the instructor) 5. Allow a bright white light source to shine from the closed end of the tube to the open end.

View the surface of the extract.

Question 4. Describe the color change when you shine the light on the pigment extract: You are viewing a phenomenon known as fluorescence, a process during which energy absorbed at one wavelength is emitted at another wavelength. Various wavelengths of light are being absorbed by the mixture of pigments. These energies are passed to chlorophyll a, in which electrons are excited by the influx of energy. The high energy electrons are then forced* to release their energy as lower energy light in the red range. *Since the cells have been disrupted and the acetone has dispersed all membranes, the normal electron acceptors of photosynthesis are not available. B. Paper Chromatography Paper chromatography is a technique for separating components of complex mixtures quickly and cheaply. The process in this case, includes three separation phases: the paper, the petroleum ether and the acetone. Separation occurs because of the differential affinities of the components of the pigment mixture for the three different phase substances. Those pigments favoring the solvent system will race ahead with the solvent as it moves up the paper, while those favoring the paper will lag behind. In addition smaller (lighter) pigments will move up faster than larger ones.

 

 

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFJAT7BHLMw&list=PLr27cjn y01Ut_4Wl9qMXQCLQc45CgJw8k&index=3&t=0s

URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6jD0hJO-28 Procedure: 1. Obtain a piece of chromatography paper. Pick it up by the straight cut end, not the angled cut

end or the center of the paper.

2. Place the chromatography paper on a clean space of the lab bench. Obtain a bright green spinach leaf, and place it on top of the chromatography paper near the angled cut, as shown in Figure 1. Then, roll the coin firmly in a straight line over the spinach, so that the coin presses the spinach leaf’s pigments into the paper.

3. Attach the stopper and paper clip to the straight end of the chromatography paper, as shown in

Figure 1, and place on your group’s lab bench.

4. Obtain test tube rack with two large test tubes for your group. Carry the rack from the bottom. You only need one of the tubes but leave the other in the rack. At the side lab bench, pour the 90% petroleum ether: 10 % acetone solvent mixture to fill the tube to an approximate depth of 2 cm. Be sure not to breathe in this solvent mixture, as it is not good for you. Walk back to your group’s lab bench with your test tubes and rack. Place your test tube rack in the place you want to leave it in for the remainder of this exercise.

5. Place the chromatography paper, paper clip, and stopper set-up inside the test tube, so that the solvent just touches and soaks the end of the chromatography paper, as shown in Figure 1. Adjust the paper clip so that the solvent does not soak the pigment line but continues to wick up the paper.

6. Place the test tube in as vertical position as

possible. Do not move the test tube rack or test tube during the duration of the exercise, or the banding patterns will not be distinct. Start your timer.

 

Figure 1. Paper Chromatography

Pigment Extract

Solvent

(Direction of Solvent Migration)

Figure 2. Paper Chromatography

 

 

 

7. When the fastest moving pigment approaches the top at around 15 – 20 minutes, remove the strip from the tube. Otherwise the pigments may crowd together at the top. Allow the paper to dry. Immediately, pour the solvent back into the original container, being careful not to breathe it in.

8. When developed, the chromatogram should show 4-5 fairly distinct bands. The bands

from top to bottom are: the orange-yellow carotene; the greenish-yellow bands are xanthophylls; and the blue-green band is chlorophyll a and the yellow-green band is chlorophyll b. As the strip dries and is exposed to light and oxygen, some of the pigments will fade.

9.

 

 

 

Question 5. In the space below, sketch your paper chromatogram using colored pencils. Then label the pigment bands with their respective pigments. Question 6. Based on how far it migrated, which pigment must have the greatest affinity for the chromatography solvent? Give the name of the pigment. Which must have the least affinity? Give the name of the pigment. C. Determining the Absorption Spectrum of the Leaf Pigments As light strikes a pigment, certain wavelengths will be reflected or transmitted, and some will be absorbed. Figure 3 shows a theoretical absorption spectrum.

 

 

Figure 3. Theoretical Absorption Spectrums of Two Plant Pigments

 

 

 

 

Question 7. Generally speaking, which wavelength ranges and their corresponding colors are most strongly absorbed by the pigments in Figure 3? (See your answer from Question 2.)

Pigment: Ranges: Colors:

Chlorophyll a

 

Chlorophyll b

 

Question 8. Which wavelength ranges and corresponding colors are least absorbed? (See your answer from Question 2.)

Pigment Ranges: Colors:

Chlorophyll a

Chlorophyll b

Introduction to Spectrophotometers In today’s lab you will be using the Spectronic 200, a type of spectrophotometer, to perform an analysis. Spectrophotometers measure light transmission and absorption. For your lab activity, you will concentrate on the light transmission measurements. The spectrophotometer works by using a light source that emits light of various wavelengths (see Figure 4). An adjustable filter removes all but a single wavelength of light (chosen by the experimenter). This wavelength of light passes through the sample tube, and an analog scale in the spectrophotometer measures the percent transmittance.

 

 

Figure 4. Basic function of the spectrophotometer measuring transmittance of light

Emits light of various wavelengths

Adjustable filter removes all but a single wavelength of light

Sample tube

Analog Scale measures

% Transmittance

 

 

The amount of light a substance transmits is called the % Transmittance or %T for short. A substance that transmits no visible light is opaque and has a 0% T. A substance that is completely transparent, transmits all visible light, has a 100% T. We will use acetone as a calibration or blanking solution; it is completely transparent and therefore will have a 100% T. You will use range of light wavelengths. Then we will view a sample of plant pigments that have been prepared as solution. Since they are pigments, they will absorb some of the light and transmit other wavelengths of light. The Parts of the Spectronic 200 Spectrophotometer

Figure 5. Outside View of Spectrophotometer

 

Figure 6. Sample Chamber

Wavelength adjustment knob. The Greek letter lambda (λ) is the symbol for wavelength

Fine wavelength adjustment and “enter” (¿) key

Data screen: shows status, wavelength and %T

Blanking button

Sample Chamber in closed position

 

 

 

Figure 7. Control Panel

 

Data Screen λ = current wavelength In this image, the wavelength is 674nm which is in the red region of the visible spectrum. %T value = 100% Visible Spectrum: Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red

Sample holder for cylindrical cuvettes

Sample holder for square cuvettes

 

 

Figure 8. Key Pad

 

 

 

Watch time lapse video to obtain your data: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zInwzmnPApE&list=PLr27cjny01U t_4Wl9qMXQCLQc45CgJw8k&index=2&t=0s

Procedure: Your instructor has done the following steps prior to lab.

1. Basic calibration and Dark Zeroing of Spectrophotometer 2. Set the Spectrophotometer to read %Transmittance (%T) 3. Set the initial wavelength for today’s experiment 4. Prepared samples for today’s experiment

Use a Spectronic 200 spectrophotometer to determine the absorption spectrum of your grass leaf pigment extract.

Collecting %T data for today’s experiment

Coarse Wavelength Adjustment Knob. Use this knob to set wavelength close to required wavelength.

Fine Wavelength Adjustment buttons Use these knobs to set wavelength to the exact value required. Left Arrow button reduces wavelength in 1 nm increments. Right Arrow button increases wavelength in 1 nm increments.

Blanking button. Press to set Blank Zero to 100%T.

ENTER button for freezing and unfreezing display.

 

 

1. Have one person in your group handle the spectrophotometer, while the other one writes

down the data in Table 1.

2. Check the wavelength and adjust as needed (according to Table 1). (See Figures 5, 7 and 8.)

3. Open the Sample Chamber Lid. (See Figure 5.)

4. Remove a lens paper from its booklet. Do not touch the lense paper anywhere you will be using it to clean the cuvette.

5. Pick up the Blanking Cuvette by the top rim to avoid contaminating the tube with oils from your fingers. Clean the cuvette throughly with lens paper. Be careful not to touch anywhere on the cuvette. a. The Blanking Cuvette contains 100% acetone b. The tube is sealed with a cork and waxy parafin film. Do not remove either.

6. Insert Blanking Cuvette in the cylindrical sample holder. (See Figure 6.)

7. Close Sample Chamber Lid.

8. Press the Blanking Button. When %T reads 100%, immediately press

ENTER (Âż) to freeze the data screen. Check the display to see if it actually froze the data, as the Enter button is finicky. (See Figure 8.)

9. Open Sample Chamber Lid (See Figure 5), and remove Blanking Cuvette (remember to handle by the top rim to avoid contaminating the tube with oils from your fingers).

10. Pick up the Sample Cuvette by the top rim (not the stopper) and clean with lens paper, especially from below the white line to the bottom of the cuvette, as this is where the light will be passing through.

11. Insert Sample Cuvette in the cylindrical sample holder. Do not remove the rubber stopper (this will prevent spilling caustic fluids in the spectrophotometer chamber).

12. Close Sample Chamber Lid.

13. Press ENTER (Âż) to unfreeze. Check the display to see if it actually froze the data, as the Enter button is finicky.

 

 

14. As soon as the %T value changes from 100% press ENTER (Âż) to freeze the data screen. This should take no more than 1-3 seconds.

15. Record %T in your Table 1.

16. Repeat steps 1-15 for each wavelength in your lab’s procedures.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1. Percent TRANSMITTANCE at Wavelengths 400 nm – 700 nm

 

400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700

17. Subtract the above values from 100%, since % T + % A = 100%. Write the results in the

Table 2 blanks below:

Table 2. Percent ABSORPTION at Wavelengths 400 nm – 700 nm

 

400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700

 

18. Using the data from Table 2, plot your team’s leaf pigment absorption spectrum curve on

Figure 10.

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

400 500 600 700

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 10. Observed Absorption Spectrum for Grass Leaf Pigments Question 9. On the graph above, at what two wavelength ranges do you see the “peaks” of light absorption? Label colors of light that are found in these two ranges, based on your answer from Question 2.

 

 

Question 10. a. In what general range of wavelengths is absorption low?

 

b. What colors of light are found in this range? Question 11. a. What happens to the light that is not absorbed in a solution? How does this relate to the fact

that leaves appear green? b. What happens to the light that is not absorbed in the solutions we used in the

spectrophotometers? III. Leaf Anatomy: Model of a Leaf Cross-Section Procedure: 1. Locate a laboratory model of a leaf cross-section. You may also wish to consult a diagram in

your textbook. 2. Study the leaf diagram on the next page (Figure 5) and be able to identify the following:

stomata (plural), guard cells, mesophyll, palisade mesophyll (cells), epidermis, and vascular tissues.

 

 

 

 

Question 12. Although a plant’s leaf is its primary organ for photosynthesis, not all the cells in a leaf are photosynthetic.

a. Observe the epidermal peel diagram on the bottom left side of Figure 5, as well as the model. Do all of the cells in the epidermal peel have chloroplasts? ____________ (Hint: Look for the cells that have chloroplasts in them! They appear as small, dark dots or ovals inside the cells drawn in Figure 5.)

b. What is the name of the cells in the surface of the leaf that have chloroplasts? ___________________________________

c. Now observe the diagram of the leaf cross section on the bottom right of Figure 5, as well as the model. Which cells have chloroplasts in this part of the leaf? ____________________________________

Question 13. Observe the openings in the leaf’s epidermis in Figure 5 and on the model. What are they called? __________________________ If plants take in gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and release oxygen (O2), how do the gases enter and leave the leaf? Question 14. Observe Figure 5 on the bottom right. Is the cellular material inside the leaf arranged so that the leaf is a solid mass, or are there spaces left inside? Question 15. If we could somehow remove the gases from a leaf without killing all the cells and then expose that leaf to sunlight, water and CO2 for a given amount of time, what gas would be produced that would refill the spaces within the leaf? ________________ Question 16. Write the summary equation for photosynthesis: Question 17. How does your answer to Question 15 relate to your answer in Question 16?

 

 

Figure 5. Diagram showing epidermal peel (left) and cross section (right) through a leaf.

 

 

 

IV. Photosynthesis and Light Intensity Many questions may come to your mind when you first study photosynthesis. Perhaps you have never really thought about plants respiring and using oxygen. Just how much do they use in a given period of time? Is it about the same amount as they produce during photosynthesis? Is the photosynthetic rate the same in a plant on a cloudy day as it is on a sunny day? The questions are endless. Doubtless there are many that you may be pondering right now. Some of these questions may require considerable time and sophisticated pieces of equipment to answer, but many may be studied in our lab, with minimum equipment and a little thought. The question that you are trying to answer today is: “Does the intensity of the light striking a plant affect the rate at which plants produce oxygen?? Let’s identify the components of the hypothesis. Question 18. What is the independent variable? (The one you will let vary in the different “treatment levels”)? Question 19. Name a dependent variable (or variables) (the variable(s) that you will measure to see if the Independent variable has an effect). Question 20. Now that you have the independent and dependent variables, create a hypothesis. Question 21. List the most important “controlled variables” (the ones that might wrongly affect your results if they are not “controlled.” These are also called confounding variables in the Understanding Experimental Design simulation).

 

 

The Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis: Experiment It is quite likely that the experiment you suggested would be suitable to test your hypothesis, but in order to give some uniformity to today’s laboratory experiment, it will be set up for you. Leaf material, placed in a buffered water solution, will be subjected to a vacuum, removing gases from within the spongy mesophyll layer of the leaf. As the gas is drawn out of the spongy mesophyll layer, the leaf will become denser than the water, and it will sink. Light of a given intensity will then be shown upon the leaf and, due to the gas generated by photosynthesis, the leaf will regain its buoyancy and rise to the surface. The time taken by the leaf to come to the surface will be used as a rough measure of the photosynthetic rate. The rate will be compared for different light intensities. Procedure:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=- VimyQbMaEo&list=PLr27cjny01Ut_4Wl9qMXQCLQc4 5CgJw8k&index=4&t=0s 1. Preparation of Leaf Discs:

a. Your experimental material will be the leaves from freshly a cut plant which only moments before had been outside, photosynthesizing.

b. Obtain a 50 ml beaker and pour in a small amount of buffer solution. c. Using a #5 cork borer (punch) and cutting board, cut six or seven leaf discs of the same

size. In cutting your discs avoid the major veins and make them as evenly-sized as possible. As you cut the discs, place them into the buffer solution so that they do not dry out. The buffer solution resists changes in the acidity or the alkalinity of the water, thereby ensuring that the pH variable will not interfere with the experiment.

d. Your instructor will prepare a large vacuum flask containing buffer solution. Drop your

discs into the flask, along with those of the rest of the class. Be sure the discs are down in the buffer solution.

Question 22. Observe the leaf discs before vacuuming them: Are they now floating, or are they on the bottom of the flask?

 

 

2. Equipment Set-up

a. Obtain a ring stand with a flood lamp with a ring attached and a timer. b. Place a stacking dish half full of cold water on the ring. This will serve as a heat trap

(see Figure 7). The position of the heat trap should be one inch above the beaker.

c. Measure the distance from the top surface of the ring stand to the painted edge of the light bulb where the light shines from. One group at your table should use the 15 cm distance, and the other should use the 60 cm distance. Ask your instructor if he/she has assigned you one of these distances.

 

 

Figure 7. Photosynthesis Apparatus

15 or 60 cm

stacking dish + water

beaker + discs

white card

ring stand

White surface of base

 

 

3. Data Collection Use this video to collect you data.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQJuT9- bOmM&list=PLr27cjny01Ut_4Wl9qMXQCLQc45CgJw8 k&index=6&t=0s

a. Using forceps or a dissecting needle (not your finger), move the leaf discs around on the bottom of the beaker so that they are not resting on one another.

 

 

b. Add three drops of saturated sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 = baking soda) solution to

the beaker (not the stacking dish). This dissociates in water to form CO2.

a. Immediately place the beaker on ring stand base, move it into position and begin timing.

 

 

 

 

b. As gas is produced during photosynthesis, it will fill the spaces in the mesophyll and buoy up the discs in the solution. You will measure the apparent rate of photosynthesis by determining the number of seconds that it takes each leaf disc to rise to the surface. (Note: A disc does not need to be flat on the surface, as long as its edge reaches the surface.)

e. Obtain times (in seconds) for the first 3 leaf discs to rise. Enter the data in Table 3

below. Other teams will enter their data to be shared by the class.

 

 

Table 3. Leaf Disc Data

Distance Team Time (sec)

Team All Teams

Number Disc 1 Disc 2 Disc 3 Averages Average 15 cm 1 X

2 X X X X X 3 X X X X X 4 X X X X X

60 cm 1 X 2 X X X X X 3 X X X X X 4 X X X X X

C. Photosynthesis Data Analysis Question 23. According to your team’s data, would you accept or reject your hypothesis regarding the effect of light intensity on photosynthetic rate? (Question 20) Describe exactly how your data lead to the above conclusion. Question 24. You also have data from all teams in your class. According to the class average from Table 3, would you accept or reject your hypothesis? Describe exactly how the data lead to the above conclusion. Question 25. If the class average data causes you to reject your hypothesis, present a new one in the space below.

 

 

Question 26. Perhaps your data were inconclusive or even contrary to the class average. List some sources of experimental error which could cause a team’s data to not fit the class average pattern: a. b. c. d. Question 27. Those who designed this laboratory exercise have tried to use certain procedures in the performance of the experiment to minimize experimental error or “control the variables.” Identify some of those procedures: a. b. c. d. Question 28. Why have we used uniform discs and not whole leaves? Question 29. Examine the formula for sodium bicarbonate. What ingredient, essential for photosynthesis, does it provide to the leaf discs?

 
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What is a Case Study?

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For this assignment you will respond to three case studies.

What is a Case Study?

“A case study is a narrative used to help you practice real-life analysis and communication skills. It is a learning tool that provides readers with “enough detail…to understand the nature and scope of the problem, and…serve as a springboard for discussion and learning” (O’Rourke, 2007, p. 391).

Use your textbook and academic resources from the Library to support your responses.

Access the Library directly from Course Resources for this class, or through the student portal. Be sure to cite and reference all your sources. The Library has a feature that allows you to automatically create an APA formatted reference.

Your completed case study should be between 750–1000 words, and all sources must be properly cited using APA format.

  1. Amy is cooking dinner for her family. She moves to pull a pot off the stove and accidently touches the burner. She reflexively pulls her finger away from the stove and immediately feels the pain.
    1. Which receptor neuron is responsible for sending information from her finger to her peripheral nervous system?
    2. Is this receptor neuron, an afferent or efferent neuron?
    3. Explain where the information from the receptor neuron is sent and how does it result in Amy moving her finger away from the stove.
    4. How many neurons are typically involved in this response? What are the names of these neurons?
    5. Evolutionarily, why do you think the human body has this system in place?
    6. What might happen if we did not have this response?
  2. Glen, who is 45 years old, begins to notice that his hands shake (tremors) when he is performing everyday tasks such as signing his signature. His family members have noticed that he also has muffled speech and tends to shuffle when he walks. He is diagnosed with Early Onset Parkinson’s disease.
    1. What is Early Onset Parkinson’s disease?
    2. What specific cell type is affected in Parkinson’s disease?
    3. What is dopamine? What effects does dopamine have on the body?
    4. Explain the structure of a synapse and why Glen’s neurologist would prescribe him a dopamine agonist?
    5. Glen has genetic testing performed and it is determined that he does carry an autosomal dominant mutation in the SNCA gene associated with Early Onset Parkinson’s disease. Glen has three children. Would you advise his children to have genetic testing performed to determine if they also carry the disease mutation? Why or why not?
  3. Patricia, who is 37 years old, discusses with her physician recent symptoms that she has experienced including blurred vision, numbness in her fingers and face, dizziness, fatigue and weakness. The physician performs multiple neurological tests and she is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS).
    1. What is MS?
    2. Is MS a disease of the central or peripheral nervous system?
    3. What is the main cell structure affected in MS?
    4. How is the action potential of a neuron affected in MS?
    5. The origins of MS are not clear. What do scientists hypothesize to be the causes of MS?

Your assignment should be written in an essay format. The assignment requires you to include details from research including the course materials and sources you locate on your own. Remember to use APA format to cite your sources of information, both within parenthetical citations and also within a reference page at the end of the project.

Basic Writing Requirements:

  • Between 750–1000 words not counting the title or reference pages.
  • Include a title page, double space, font size 10 or 12.
  • Include a well-developed introduction and conclusion
  • Provide exceptional content.
  • Demonstrate superior organization: use logic.
  • Free of grammar and spelling errors.
  • No evidence of plagiarism.
  • Use the APA style for all citations.
 
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