UMUC Biology 102/103 Lab 7: Ecological Interactions

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This contains 100% correct material for UMUC Biology 103 LAB07: Ecological Interactions. However, this is an Answer Key, which means, you should put it in your own words. Here are the questions that will be answered. Attached is the lab that is fully completed. Enjoy!

 

 

 

Pre-Lab Questions

1.    Would you expect endangered species to be more frequently generalists or specialists? Explain your answer.

 

2.    How does temperature affect water availability in an ecosystem?

 

3.    Choose a species and describe some adaptations that species developed that allow them to survive in their native habitat.

 

Experiment 1: Effects of pH on Radish Seed Germination

Data Tables and Post-Lab Assessment

Table 1: pH and Radish Seed Germination

Stage/Day Observations      
Initial pH      
1 (0400hrs)      
2 (0400hrs)      
3 (0400hrs)      
4 (0400hrs)      
5 (0400hrs)      
6 (0400hrs)      
7 (0400hrs)      

 

 

 

 

Post-Lab Questions

1.    Compare and construct a line graph based on the data from Table 1 in the space below. Place the day on the x axis, and the number of seeds germinated on the y axis. Be sure to include a title, label the x and y axes, and provide a legend describing which line corresponds to each plate (e.g., blue = acetic acid, green = sodium bicarbonate, etc…).

 

 

2.    Was there any noticeable effect on the germination rate of the radish seeds as a result of the pH? Compare and contrast the growth rate for the control with the alkaline and acidic solutions.

 

3.    According to your results would you say that the radish has a broad pH tolerance? Why or why not? Use your data to support your answer.

 

 

4.    Knowing that acid rain has a pH of 2 – 3 would you conclude that crop species with a narrow soil pH range are in trouble? Explain why, or why not, using scientific reasoning. Is acid rain a problem for plant species and crops?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.    Research and briefly describe a real world example about how acid rain affect plants. Be sure to demonstrate how pH contributes to the outcome, and proposed solutions (if any). Descriptions should be approximately 2 – 3 paragraphs. Include at least three citations (use APA formatting).

 
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Lab 3: Cell Structure and Function

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Lab 3: Cell Structure and Function

 

INSTRUCTIONS:

 

 

 

·         To conduct your laboratory exercises, use the Laboratory Manual located under Course Content. Read the introduction and the directions for each exercise/experiment carefully before completing the exercises/experiments and answering the questions.

 

 

 

 

Pre-Lab Questions

 

  1. Identify three major similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

     

  2. Where is the DNA housed in a prokaryotic cell? Where is it housed in a eukaryotic cell?

     

     

  3. Identify three structures which provide support and protection in a eukaryotic cell.

     

 

 

 

Experiment 1: Cell Structure and Function

 

 

 

Label each of the arrows in the following slide image:

 

 

 

 

Post-Lab Questions

 

 

 

 

 

  1. What is the difference between the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

     

     

     

     

  2. Would an animal cell be able to survive without mitochondria? Why or why not?

     

     

     

     

     

  3. What could you determine about a specimen if you observed a slide image showing the specimen with a cell wall, but no nucleus or mitochondria?

     

     

     

     

  4. Hypothesize why parts of a plant, such as the leaves, are green, but other parts, such as the roots, are not. Use scientific reasoning to support your hypothesis.

     

    Experiment 2: Osmosis – Direction and Concentration Gradients

    Data Tables and Post-Lab Assessment

    Table 3: Sucrose Concentration vs. Tubing Permeability

     

 

Table 3: Sucrose Concentration vs. Tubing Permeability
Band Color % Sucrose in Beaker % Sucrose in Bag Initial Volume (mL) Final Volume (mL) Net Displacement (mL)
Yellow          
Red          
Blue          
Green          

 

 

 

 

 

Hypothesis:

 

 

 

Post-Lab Questions

 

  1. For each of the tubing pieces, identify whether the solution inside was hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic in comparison to the beaker solution in which it was placed.

     

     

  2. Which tubing increased the most in volume? Explain why this happened.

     

     

  3. What do the results of this experiment this tell you about the relative tonicity between the contents of the tubing and the solution in the beaker?

 

 

 

 

 

  1. What would happen if the tubing with the yellow band was placed in a beaker of distilled water?

     

  2. How are excess salts that accumulate in cells transferred to the blood stream so they can be removed from the body? Be sure to explain how this process works in terms of tonicity.

     

  3. If you wanted water to flow out of a tubing piece filled with a 50% solution, what would the minimum concentration of the beaker solution need to be? Explain your answer using scientific evidence.

     

  4. How is this experiment similar to the way a cell membrane works in the body? How is it different? Be specific with your response.

    Lab 3: Cell Structure and Function

    INSTRUCTIONS:

    · To conduct your laboratory exercises, use the Laboratory Manual located under Course Content. Read the introduction and the directions for each exercise/experiment carefully before completing the exercises/experiments and answering the questions.

    Pre-Lab Questions

    1. Identify three major similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

    2. Where is the DNA housed in a prokaryotic cell? Where is it housed in a eukaryotic cell?

    3. Identify three structures which provide support and protection in a eukaryotic cell.

    Experiment 1: Cell Structure and Function

    Label each of the arrows in the following slide image:

    image1.png

    Post-Lab Questions

    1. What is the difference between the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

    2. Would an animal cell be able to survive without mitochondria? Why or why not?

    3. What could you determine about a specimen if you observed a slide image showing the specimen with a cell wall, but no nucleus or mitochondria?

    4. Hypothesize why parts of a plant, such as the leaves, are green, but other parts, such as the roots, are not. Use scientific reasoning to support your hypothesis.

    Experiment 2: Osmosis – Direction and Concentration Gradients

    Data Tables and Post-Lab Assessment

    Table 3: Sucrose Concentration vs. Tubing Permeability

    Table 3: Sucrose Concentration vs. Tubing Permeability
    Band Color % Sucrose in Beaker % Sucrose in Bag Initial Volume (mL) Final Volume (mL) Net Displacement (mL)
    Yellow          
    Red          
    Blue          
    Green          

    Hypothesis:

    Post-Lab Questions

    1. For each of the tubing pieces, identify whether the solution inside was hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic in comparison to the beaker solution in which it was placed.

    2. Which tubing increased the most in volume? Explain why this happened.

    3. What do the results of this experiment this tell you about the relative tonicity between the contents of the tubing and the solution in the beaker?

    4. What would happen if the tubing with the yellow band was placed in a beaker of distilled water?

    5. How are excess salts that accumulate in cells transferred to the blood stream so they can be removed from the body? Be sure to explain how this process works in terms of tonicity.

    6. If you wanted water to flow out of a tubing piece filled with a 50% solution, what would the minimum concentration of the beaker solution need to be? Explain your answer using scientific evidence.

    7. How is this experiment similar to the way a cell membrane works in the body? How is it different? Be specific with your response.

    ©eScience Labs, LLC 2014

    image2.jpg

 
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SCI 115 Week 6 Lab Quiz

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QUESTION 1

1. Most scientists who use DNA microarrays obtain them

 

from   companies that mass produce them

 

from   the government

 

by   making them in their labs

 

by   exploiting ambitious graduate students

QUESTION 2

1. “In this study, cancerous and normal skin tissue samples were excised with a scalpel. Each skin sample was then placed into a sample tube along with solvent, shaken on a vortex and centrifuged. When the sample tubes came out of the centrifuge, there was a top layer and a bottom layer. For our purposes, we went on to use ______________ for further processing.”

 

only   the top layer

 

only   the bottom layer

 

a   mixture of top and bottom layers

 

none   of the options listed

QUESTION 3

1. The purpose of the vortex instrument is to

 

vigorously   shake the tissue sample in the solvent so that it dissolves.

 

spin   the tissue/solvent mixture around to separate the solids

 

cause   the mRNA to bind to the pellets

 

dispose   of biohazardous waste safely

QUESTION 4

1. “Once the RNA is isolated from the DNA, proteins and other materials, the solvent/RNA mixture is run through a column of all beads. Each bead has several short strands of polyT RNA sticking out of it. In this step:”

 

“mRNA   sticks to the beads, while rRNA and tRNA run right through the column”

 

“tRNA   sticks to the beads, while mRNA and rRNA run right through the column”

 

“rRNA   and tRNA stick to the beads, while mRNA runs right through the column”

 

none   of the options listed

QUESTION 5

1. “Once the mRNA is isolated, you make a DNA copy of it using by adding polyT primers, labeled DNA nucleotides, and an enzyme known as:”

 

reverse   transcriptase

 

tyrosine   hydroxylase

 

alcohol   dehydrogenase

 

ATP   kinase

QUESTION 6

1. A DNA copy of a mRNA transcript is known as

 

complementary   DNA (abbreviated cDNA)

 

copied   DNA (abbreviated cDNA)

 

mitochondrial   DNA (abbreviated mtDNA)

 

recombinant   DNA (abbreviated rDNA)

QUESTION 7

1. Each spot on the DNA microarray in embedded with

 

copies   of DNA from one particular gene

 

copies   of DNA from several different genes with similar functions

 

copies   of DNA from several different genes with different functions

 

copies   of mRNA from one or more genes

QUESTION 8

1. “When we say that the cDNA derived from our sample has hybridized to a particular spot on the array, we mean that: ”

 

The   cDNA from the sample has stuck to the DNA on the microarray at that point.

 

The   cDNA from the sample is jumbled and cannot be trusted.

 

The   cDNA has been used to make an mRNA copy

 

You   need to buy microarrays from different manufacturers and triangulate the   results

QUESTION 9

1. “In this particular experiment, we used red-labeled DNA to process the sample from _____________ tissue and the green-labeled DNA to process the sample from ___________. ”

 

cancerous;   normal

 

normal;   cancerous

 

normal;   normal

 

cancerous;   cancerous

QUESTION 10

1. “After scanning the green labeled areas and the red labeled areas, when we combine the two images, the spots that show up as yellow correspond to ”

 

genes   expressed by both normal or cancerous skin cells.

 

genes   that were not expressed at all in either normal or cancerous skin cells

 

“genes   expressed by cancerous, but not normal skin cells”

 

“genes   expressed by normal, but not cancer skin cells. ”

QUESTION 11

1. “In interpreting the results of this study, spots on the microarray that are red correspond to:”

 

genes   that are turned up by cancer

 

genes   that are turned down by cancer

 

genes   that are unaffected by cancer

 

genes   that aren t expressed in normal or cancerous cells

QUESTION 12

1. “In interpreting the results of this study, spots on the the microarray that are green correspond to genes that are ”

 

genes   that are turned down by cancer

 

genes   that are turned up by cancer

 

genes   that are unaffected by cancer

 

genes   that aren t expressed in normal or cancerous cells

QUESTION 13

1. “When the DNA microarray study tells us that a large number of genes have been turned up (or turned down) by a disorder, the most likely explanation is that ”

 

the   turned up genes are likely controlled by a gene that has gone bad

 

all   of these genes are genes that have gone bad themselves

 

even   just one mutation in any of these affected genes would have been sufficient   to cause the disorder

 

the   cytoplasm has too many free radicals in it

QUESTION 14

1. A gene shown by the microarray to be expressed is :

 

“probably   making protein, but a protein expression analysis would be needed to know for   sure”

 

definitely   making protein

 

definitely   not making protein

 

probably   making protein but there’s no way to know for sure

QUESTION 15

1. “In the application of this technique to skin cancer, a gene that has gone bad ”

 

“may   or may not be identified at all, but the overall pattern of results can give   important clues”

 

can   almost always be identified via DNA microarray

 
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Pandemic Pandemonium

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Case copyright held by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, University at Buffalo, State University of New York. Origi- nally published March 31, 2020. Please see our usage guidelines, which outline our policy concerning permissible reproduction of this work. Image credit: Morphology exhibited by coronaviruses, CDC/Alissa Eckert and Dan Higgins, <https://phil.cdc.gov/Details.aspx?pid=23311>.

NATIONAL CENTER FOR CASE STUDY TEACHING IN SCIENCE

Part I – The Need to Quarantine “But I want to go out with my friends! This is so unfair!” Kat wailed from across the room while her mom and dad sat stone-faced on the couch. The sixteen-year-old high school student thought this sounded like torture.

“We’re sorry, sweetheart, but one of your mother’s employees has tested positive for COVID-19. Since they share an office, we have to stay here for 14 days to make sure we’re all okay,” Dad stated in a matter-of-fact voice.

“But that’s silly! We only spent one hour in mom’s office yesterday before soccer practice. We weren’t even there that long!” Megan, Kat’s twin sister, scoffed.

“Well, that’s all it takes,” Mom retorted. “We are going to listen to the recommendations of the doctors and that’s final. We are quarantining ourselves here for two weeks.”

Megan and Kat left the room and headed to their shared bedroom. Megan, the daughter who always needed evidence to back up any statement, immediately took out her laptop and started searching for answers. Kat watched over her shoulder.

Megan wanted to know all about this disease. She had never heard of COVID-19, much less thought about getting it. Megan found information on the CDC website about the disease COVID-19 and about the virus that causes it, SARS-CoV-2. Based on the statistics she was seeing, she couldn’t figure out why her mom was so worried. It looked as though this was a disease to be worried about if you were elderly, but she and her sister were sixteen, so she figured that they should be just fine.

(Use the following sources that Megan consulted to help you answer the questions below.) • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coronavirus (COVID-19).

<https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/index.html> • World Health Organization. Q&A on coronaviruses (COVID-19).

<https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-coronaviruses>

Questions 1. What are the symptoms of COVID-19?

2. What are the mechanisms of transmission of SARS-CoV-2?

3. What is a quarantine? How long does a quarantine usually last? On what factors does the length of a quarantine depend? Why are Megan and Kat’s family in a 14-day quarantine?

4. Based on the information above, do you think Megan and Kat are at risk of developing COVID-19? Why or why not?

Pandemic Pandemonium: Why Can’t We Just Treat COVID-19? by Melissa S. Kosinski-Collins, Lindsay Mehrmanesh, Jessie Cuomo, and Kene N. Piasta Department of Biology Brandeis University, Waltham, MA

 

 

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Page 2“Pandemic Pandemonium” by Kosinski-Collins, Mehrmanesh, Cuomo, & Piasta

Part II – Exploring the Structure of SARS-CoV-2 Kat noticed that one of the recommendations from the CDC for prevention of COVID-19 was to “wash her hands with soap,” and she giggled outwardly. That was obvious! She had been washing her hands since she was a toddler before meals. She pulled out her own laptop and started looking for “real scientific” answers rather than what she thought was the somewhat obvious information Megan was finding.

Kat started researching SARS-CoV-2 and its structure. When looking at pictures of the coronavirus, Kat wasn’t surprised to learn that the name meant “crown” virus. That made sense given that most of the pictures she saw looked like the virus had a halo or crown surrounding it. But what was the crown made of?

She quickly learned that SARS-CoV-2 belonged to a bigger family of viruses called the SARS-associated coronaviruses. She found out that like most viruses, it had a core containing nucleic acid and several associated proteins. She went on to read that unlike the other typical viruses she had learned about in school, the SARS-associated coronavirus has characteristics that make it slightly different. She discovered the following characteristics of the SARS-associated coronavirus virion, or virus particle:

• It is an RNA virus, meaning it has a nucleic acid center made of RNA and not DNA.

• It has a protein associated with the RNA called nucleocapsid protein.

• It has an outer phospholipid bilayer surrounding the structure that has several different types of glycoproteins embedded within it.

• The glycoproteins found in the cell membrane are spike, envelope and membrane glycoprotein.

• There are other accessory proteins used by the virus that help with infection and replication in host cells.

Kat found an illustration (Figure 1). “It has a phospho- lipid membrane,” she gasped, “That’s why I need to use soap and wash my hands to clean off this virus!” She thought about this for a moment and realized learning about lipids in her high school chemistry class was finally coming in handy. This was just the thing to destroy the outside of a coronavirus! Maybe Megan’s research hadn’t been so silly after all.

Questions Answer the following questions. If you use an outside source, be sure to include a citation.

1. What are the structural and functional differences between DNA and RNA?

2. List one human-infecting virus that has a DNA-based genome.

3. What is a glycoprotein? Where are they found in human cells? List some of their functions.

4. Hypothesize as to why coronaviruses may have glycoproteins in their membranes. What may be the purpose and function of these structures?

5. Describe the structure of a phospholipid and a phospholipid bilayer. Indicate the polar and nonpolar parts of the structure for each.

6. Describe how soap could chemically destroy a coronavirus virion.

Figure 1. Schematic drawing of SARS-CoV-2.

 

 

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Page 3“Pandemic Pandemonium” by Kosinski-Collins, Mehrmanesh, Cuomo, & Piasta

Part III – How Does SARS-CoV-2 Infect Me? Kat decided to find out more about the mechanism of infection of SARS-CoV-2 as compared to other viruses she had heard of like HIV and herpes. She knew many viruses have a lytic cycle. In the lytic cycle, viruses actively replicate themselves inside the host utilizing the host machinery, and eventually destroy the host cell.

Coronaviruses, she found, are viruses that seemed to be something unlike the typical viruses she had studied. She considered the steps of coronavirus infection below:

Step 1: SARS-CoV-2 is recognized by and attaches to the host cell via the spike glycoproteins in the cell membrane of the virus.

Step 2: SARS-CoV-2 is engulfed by the host cell.

Step 3: The original infecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA is released, but remains in the host cytoplasm.

Step 4: A specific section of the original infecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA is translated to make RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

Step 5: The viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase simultaneously makes complete copies of the genomic RNA to be packaged into new virions and transcribes specific sections to mRNA as templates for translation from the original infecting RNA.

Step 6: The newly synthesized coronavirus viral mRNA is translated into viral proteins like viral proteases, structural proteins, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase using host ribosomes.

Step 7: Many of the newly synthesized viral proteins are processed for packaging into new virions.

Step 8: Partially complete virions are assembled and then bud from the host taking with them host membrane.

Questions 1. Describe the steps of lytic infection typical to a DNA virus like herpes simplex virus.

2. How are the steps of SARS-CoV-2 infection different from lytic infection of a DNA virus? How are they similar?

3. How might an RNA-based genome result in an increased infection rate? What are some potential complications to this infection strategy?

4. What is the central dogma of biology? How does coronavirus defy traditional models of central dogma?

5. Fill in the table below comparing four different viruses. Use resources found at either/both of the following websites to guide you in the process: • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. <https://www.cdc.gov> • National Center for Biotechnology Information. <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov>

 

 

 

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Page 4“Pandemic Pandemonium” by Kosinski-Collins, Mehrmanesh, Cuomo, & Piasta

Table 1. Comparison of four different viruses.

Name of Virus SARS-CoV-2 Herpes Simplex Virus (Type-1)

HIV Influenza B

Symptoms

Incubation period (time of acquisition to onset)

Type of cell the virus infects

Nucleic acid type

Accessory proteins

Does the virion have a membrane? (Yes/No)

Does virus integrate into the host genome? (Yes/No)

Treatment

 

 

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Page 5“Pandemic Pandemonium” by Kosinski-Collins, Mehrmanesh, Cuomo, & Piasta

Part IV – The Unfortunate Diagnosis After almost a week of being home under quarantine, the girls started to get restless. They went out to play soccer in the backyard, quickly passing the ball back and forth in a warm-up drill. Kat began to make mistakes that she usually didn’t make and just seemed “out of it” to Megan.

“One week off from practice and you can’t even play anymore?” Megan quipped with a huge grin on her face. “I guess, I’m now the better player.”

“No. I don’t feel very good, “ Kat said looking at the ground. “I’m just so tired and it’s like I can’t get enough air. I’m going inside.”

That afternoon, Kat began running a fever. Her symptoms became increasingly worse to the point where her parents simply couldn’t keep her fever in check. The girls’ parents took Kat to the emergency room the next day to find out that she was positive for COVID-19. While in the hospital and receiving expert medical care, Kat’s breathing became more and more labored. The doctors even began discussing the possible need of a ventilator to help her breathe.

Pleading with the doctors for some kind of help, Kat’s parents became desperate.

“Isn’t there something you can do to help treat this virus in her? Can’t you give her penicillin? Give her that!” Kat’s dad began yelling frantically.

“I’m sorry, but that just won’t work against this virus. Antibiotics, like penicillin, only work on bacteria. Antivirals are the pharmacological agents that we usually use to treat viral infections. I’m afraid that we don’t have any available to use against COVID-19. There is nothing we can do right now other than help her rest and keep her comfortable. She will likely be okay if we give her time to recover.”

Kat’s mom simply wouldn’t give up hope. She asked nurses and hospital staff what kind of antivirals were available. She found the following list:

• Oseltamivir is an antiviral that treats influenza. It is a neuraminidase inhibitor. • Acyclovir is an antiviral used to treat herpes simplex virus (HSV). This drug stops replication of viral DNA. • Raltegravir is an antiviral used to treat HIV. This drug stops integration of HIV into the host genome. • Lamivudine is an antiviral used to treat HIV. This drug stops the action of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme that copies HIV RNA into DNA. • Maraviroc is an antiviral used to treat HIV. It blocks entry of the virus into macrophages and T-Cells.

It didn’t appear that any one of these would work for Kat. Kat’s mom began crying. She sat in the waiting room chair in disbelief. How had she missed the signs and let this happen?

Questions 1. What is an antibiotic? Why won’t an antibiotic be effective in treating COVID-19?

2. What is an antiviral? When are antiviral treatments most effective? How do antivirals avoid harming the host?

3. For each of the antivirals Kat’s mom identified, suggest a reason why they will not work for SARS-CoV-2.

4. Using what you have learned about COVID-19, suggest a possible target or target step in the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle for an antiviral drug target. Consider how your proposed antiviral target or target step may impact the health or well-being of the human host.

 

 

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Page 6“Pandemic Pandemonium” by Kosinski-Collins, Mehrmanesh, Cuomo, & Piasta

Part V – What Do We Do Next? At home, Megan struggled with the news that Kat was going to stay in the hospital for some time. She decided she wanted to write an email to their soccer team telling them of Kat’s diagnosis. She thought it was her job to tell them that they were at risk, and they shouldn’t take COVID-19 as lightly as she and her sister had.

In time, Kat recovered, but Megan and her dad never developed outward symptoms of COVID-19. The girls’ mom developed a mild case of the disease with a slight cough and fever, but never anything like what Kat had. Later tests showed everyone in the family had been exposed to the disease, but only Kat developed a severe symptomatic case. Megan and her parents had been lucky.

Assignment Adopting the role of Megan, draft an email to Kat’s teammates. Consider the following when drafting your email:

• What and how much should you tell the team about the situation with your sister? • Is it ethical to share the specifics of her situation? • How much advice (if any) would you provide to the team about quarantine and what to do next? • Do you think quarantines are effective? Why or why not? • How would you make the team believe that your advice is real and not anecdotal? • Would you share any of the science you had learned? • What will be your next steps going forward?

2

References Bonchristiani, H.F. et al. 2009. Respiratory viruses. In Encyclopedia of Microbiology 3rd ed. 500–18. Fehr, A.R., and S. Perlman S. 2015. Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods in

Molecular Biology 1282:1–23. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1. Holmes, K. 2003. Sars-associated coronavirus. New England Journal of Medicine 348:1948–51. doi: 10.1056/

NEJMp030078. Hu, W. and S. Hughes. 2012. HIV-1 Reverse transcription. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2:a006882. doi:

10.1101/cshperspect.a006882. Novakova, L. et al. 2018. Current antiviral drugs and their analysis in biological materials- Part 1: Antivirals against

respiratory and herpes viruses. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 147: 400–16. doi: 10.1016/j. jpba.2017.06.071.

Payne, S. 2017. Introduction to DNA viruses. In: Viruses From Understanding to Investigation, 231–6. doi: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-803109-4.00028-3.

Sola, I. et. al. 2015. Continuous and Discontinuous RNA synthesis in coronavirus. Annual Review of Virology 2(1): 265–88. doi:10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055218.

Xu, H. et al. 2020. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. International Journal of Oral Science 12:8. doi: 10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x.

 
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