Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents

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Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 1

A quick recap…. There are several terms that need to be clarified so that you can more easily follow the exercise. A gene is a

piece of DNA that directs the expression of a particular characteristic (trait). Genes are located on

chromosomes, and the location where a particular gene is found is referred to as the locus (plural: loci) of that

gene. An allele is a gene for which there is an alternative expression, which can lead to the alterative form of a

trait. For example, a diploid organism carries the allele “A” on one homologous chromosome, and the allele “A”

on the other. The genotype of this organism is then AA and it is said to be homozygous. An organism may also

carry two different alleles. For example on one chromosome it could carry the allele “A” and on the other it

could carry the allele “a”. The genotype of such an organisms is then Aa, and it is described as heterozygous for

this chromosomal locus.

The genotype of an organism is the listing of the two alleles for each trait that it possesses. The phenotype of an

organism is a description of the way a trait is displayed in the structure, behavior, or physiology of the organism.

Some alleles are dominant to others and mask the presence of other alleles. The dominant condition is indicated

by uppercase letters (e.g., “A”). The alleles that are masked are called recessive alleles. The recessive condition

is indicated by lowercase letters (e.g., “a”). When both dominants are present in the genotype (AA), the organism

is said to be homozygous dominant for the trait, and the organisms will show the dominant phenotype (trait

expression A). When both recessives are present in the genotype (aa), the organism is said to be homozygous

recessive for the trait, and the organisms will show the recessive phenotype (trait expression a). In the case of

complete dominance, the dominant allele completely masks the recessive allele, and an organism with a

heterozygous genotype (Aa) will show the dominant phenotype (trait expression A).

 

Evolutionary Agents

Evolution is a process resulting in changes in gene frequencies (= the genetic make-up) of a population over

time. The mechanisms of evolution include selection (which can cause change over time & adaptation), and

forces that provide variation and cause change over time (but not adaptation). Factors that change gene

frequencies over time are referred to as evolutionary agents.

A powerful way to detect the presence of evolutionary agents is the use of the Hardy–Weinberg model. This

model can be applied to traits that are influenced by several loci; the simplest case is for a trait that is regulated

by one locus with two alleles.

With the Hardy–Weinberg model, the frequency of genotypes in the population can be predicted from the

probability of encounters between gametes bearing the different alleles. With alleles R and B occurring at

frequencies p and q, respectively, the frequency of genotypes in the population is described by the formula:

 

p 2

+ 2pq + q 2

= 1

Hardy-Weinberg

equilibrium

If p is the frequency of one allele, and q

is the frequency of the other allele, then:

 

p + q = 1

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 2

If certain conditions are met, the proportions of genotypes that make

up a population remain constant from generation to generation, and

can be predicted from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

For example, if flower color is controlled by two alleles (R & B),

and the allele for red color is present in the population 80% of the

time, than the other allele for blue color must be present 20% of the

time. Consequently, the allele frequencies in the population are p =

0.8 and q = 0.2. (0.8 + 0.2 = 1).

From this we can calculate the expected genotype frequencies in the

population. Since p = 0.8, we would expect 64% of the flowers in

the populations to be homozygous for red flower color (expected

genotype frequency for p 2

= 0.8 x 0.8 =0.64). 32% of the

populations would be heterozygous for flower color. They would

have one R allele (p = 0.8) and one B allele (q = 0.2), and if neither

allele were dominant they would appear purple. The expected

genotype frequency of these purple individuals is 2pq = 2 x 0.8 x 0.2 = 0.32. Finally, 4% of the population would be homozygous for the

blue flower color (q 2

= 0.2 x 0.2 = 0.04).

The Hardy–Weinberg model applies

when the following conditions are met:

1) No genetic drift

2) No selection

3) No mutation

4) No migration

 

By contrast, there will be change in gene

frequencies in a population when at least

one of these conditions occur:

1) Genetic drift

2) Selection

3) Mutation

4) Migration

 

In today’s lab, you will do a series of exercises that illustrate the effect of the different evolutionary agents on the

genetic structure of a model population. You will work with populations composed of individuals that are

represented by colored beads. White beads represent individuals that are homozygous for the white allele (WW);

red beads are individuals that are homozygous for the red allele (RR), and pink beads are heterozygous (WR).

These beads live in a habitat – a plastic dishpan filled with smaller beads. The larger beads of our population will

be retained by the mesh, while the smaller beads pass through the mesh.

When the individuals are recovered with the help of the mesh, the frequencies of the color alleles are determined

using the Hardy-Weinberg model. The alleles in our populations are codominant – each white individual

possesses two white alleles, each red individual two red alleles, and the pink individuals have one red and one

white allele. Consequently, the total number of color alleles in a population of 40 individuals is 80. If such a

population contains 10 white individuals, 20 pink individuals, and 10 red individuals, the frequency of white

alleles (p) is

(2 x number white beads) + number pink beads

p = —————————————————————-

(2 x number of beads total)

(2 x 10) + 20

p = ———————– = 0.5

80

Because p + q = 1, the frequency of the red allele (q) must also be 0.5.

1. NAT URAL S E L E CT I O N

Natural selection disturbs the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium by discriminating between individuals with respect to

their ability to survive and reproduce. Individuals that are better at surviving to produce young will contribute

more genes to the next generation; they are said to have greater fitness than those individuals that leave no or

fewer offspring.

In this experiment you will test the hypothesis that individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce when

their coloration makes it easier to hide from predators in the environment.

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 3

1. Work in groups of four. Each group member assumes one of the following roles

Predator: Search for prey (large beads)

Data Recorder / Timer: record numerical results and time the predation sessions

Calculator: use a calculator to calculate the allele frequencies

Caretaker: look after and manipulate the experimental setup

2. Create a white habitat by filling the dishpan with small white beads. Establish an initial population by

adding 10 large white beads, 20 large pink beads and 10 large red beads into the habitat. “Hide” the

individuals in the habitat by mixing the large and small beads. The predator will prey on the large beads,

removing as many individuals as possible in a set amount of time. The survivors will reproduce a new

generation, upon which the predator will prey again. This cycle will be repeated several times. Make a

prediction as to how the frequency of red alleles in the populations will change over time.

Prediction:

 

3. The predator hunts for prey (large beads) in the habitat, and uses the pair of forceps to catch as many prey

items as possible in 30 seconds.

4. After the predation (selection) episode, strain the habitat with the sieve and count the remaining red, pink

and red individuals. Record the numbers in the second row in Table 1. Calculate the frequencies of the white

(p) and red (q) alleles remaining in the population, and record them in Table 2 (under First generation). For

example, if 6 white, 8 pink and 8 red individuals remain, the frequency of the white alleles is

To calculate p, use the observed numbers of each color within the formula:

(2 x number white beads) + number pink beads

p = ——————————————————–

(2 x number of beads total)

(2 x 6) + 8

p = ———————– = 0.45

44

 

Table 1: Large- Bead counts before and after four rounds of Natural Selection (Predation)

 

Population

White Beads

Pink Beads

Red Beads

Total Beads

 

Initial

Before 10 20 10 40

After

 

Second Generation

Before

After

 

Third Generation

Before

After

 

Fourth Generation

Before

After

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 4

Table 2: Allele and genotype frequencies due to Natural Selection (Predation)

Population p q p 2

2pq q 2

Initial 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.5 0.25

 

First Generation

 

Second Generation

 

Third Generation

 

Fourth Generation

 

5. Based on the new values (after selection) for allele frequencies, calculate the genotype frequencies for the

homozygous white (p 2 ) and red (q

2 ) individuals, and for the heterozygous pink individuals (2pq). Record the

new allele frequencies in Table 2. For example, if p now equals 0.43, the frequency of the homozygous

white individuals is

p 2

= (0.48) 2

= 0.23

6. Assuming that 40 individuals comprise the next and all succeeding generations, calculate the number of

white, red and pink individuals to create the next generation, and record the numbers in the Before row

under Second generation in Table 1. For this, and all future calculations, round up or down to the nearest

whole number. For example, if p 2 =0.23, the number of white individuals for the next generation is

p 2

x 40 = 0.23 x 40 = 9.2 or 9 white individuals

7. Calculate the numbers of white, red and pink individuals you need to construct the new generation, and

introduce them into the habitat for a new round of selection.

8. Repeat the selection and reproduction steps for three more rounds, filling in the remaining rows in Tables 1

and 2. When you are done, use the frequencies of the red allele from Table 2 to construct a histogram in the

appropriate space in Figure 1 below. Remember to label your axes and complete the figure caption.

Figure 1: Changes in frequency of the red allele (q) due to selection. ……………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0 1 2 3 4

1.0

0.5

0.0

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 5

What is your conclusion as to the prediction you made in point 2?

There are 3 different patterns of selection. Directional selection favors one extreme phenotype over the other and

causes allele frequencies to change in a predictable direction. Stabilizing selection favors an intermediate

phenotype, rather than one at the extremes. Disruptive selection disfavors intermediate phenotypes, and favors

the extreme ones. Which kind of selection is illustrated by predation of white, pink and red individuals in a white

habitat?

 

If two identical populations inhabited different environments (e.g. white and red habitats), how would the

frequency of the color genes in each habitat compare after a large number of generations?

 

When two populations become genetically different through time (divergence), individuals can lose the ability

to interbreed, and two new species are formed. This process is called speciation.

 

2. EFFECT OF GENE FLOW ON NATURAL SELECTION

New members may join populations (immigrations) or leave the population (emigration). As they do, the

frequencies of alleles in the population change. This gene flow due to migration can be a powerful force in

evolution.

1. Establish a new population as described in the previous section.

2. Begin the selection process as before, but this time 5 red individuals will immigrate into the population

before the new allele frequencies are determined. Write down a prediction of the hypothesis that gene flow

resulting from migration of individuals into a population undergoing predation affects the change in allele

frequencies expected from selection alone. Focus your prediction on the change in the frequency of red

alleles in the population.

3. Conduct 4 cycles of predation with migration. For each generation, write down the number of surviving

individuals in Table 3, and the allele frequencies in Table 4. When you are done, use the frequencies of the

red allele from Table 4 to construct a histogram as your homework.

Homework: Write a hypothesis and prediction for this evolutionary model based on your understanding of

gene flow. Create a histogram that displays the change through four generations of natural selection with

migration. Remember to include a figure caption and axis labels (10 pts). *Hint: see Figure 1

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 6

 

Table 3:

Large- Bead counts before and after four rounds of simulated Natural Selection and Gene Flow

 

Population

White Beads

Pink Beads

Red Beads

Total Beads

 

Initial

Before 10 20 10 40

After (First Gen) (survivors + 5)

 

Second Generation

Before

After (survivors + 5)

 

Third Generation

Before _________ _________ __________ _________

After _________ _________ (survivors + 5)

 

Fourth Generation

Before _________ _________ __________ _________

After _________ _________ (survivors + 5)

Table 4: Allele and Genotype frequencies due to Natural Selection and Gene Flow

Population p q p 2

2pq q 2

Initial

First Generation

Second Generation

Third Generation

Fourth Generation

 

How did migration influence the effectiveness of selection in this example?

If white individuals would have immigrated into the population instead of the red ones – how would this have

influenced the change in gene frequencies?

 

Through immigration, new genetic information is introduced into the population. Gene flow thus maintains

genetic variation in a population. Barriers to gene flow can decrease genetic variation within populations, and

also accelerate divergence between populations.

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 7

3. MUTATION

New genetic information can also be introduced into a population through mutation.

1. Establish a new population by placing 10 large white beads, 10 large red beads and 20 large pink beads in

the bowl. Do not add the small beads this time.

2. Designate one group member to pick 20 large beads from the bowl (without looking!). Use these 20 beads to establish a new generation. Then replace one white bead with a silver bead. This represents a mutation in the

gamete that one parent contributes to this generation.

3. Calculate the allele frequencies of the new generation, including the frequency of the new color allele (r),

and write them down in Table 5.

 

Table 5: Change in Allele Frequencies due to Mutation

Population p

q

r

 

Initial

 

New Generation

 

After the mutation, three alleles are present in the population (p + q + r = 1). Consequently, the Hardy-Weinberg

equation must be expanded to

p 2 + 2pq + q

2 + 2pr + 2qr + r

2 = 1.0.

In addition to white, pink and red phenotypes, there are now silver, silver-red, and in subsequent generation

potentially black phenotypes. If the next generation contains 50 individuals, how many offspring of each

phenotype would be found in the population? Use Table 6 to calculate the genotype and phenotype frequencies.

 

Table 6: Phenotypes two generations after a mutation

 

Phenotype Genotype Frequency

x 50

 

# Individuals

White p 2

 

 

Pink 2pq

Red q 2

 

 

Silver 2pr

Silver-Red 2qr

Black r 2

 

 

Imagine a population made up of individuals of the color phenotypes in these proportions. What effect will

natural selection have on the phenotypes in a white habitat?

 

Under which conditions would a rare black allele be favored?

 

 

Foundations of Biological Sciences I Evolutionary Agents – 8

4. GENETIC DRIFT

Gene frequencies can change over generations as a result of chance (Genetic Drift). Genetic drift is often a

problem for small populations, because it can result in a loss of genetic variability. In very small populations,

chance can even eliminate an allele from a population.

1. Establish a new population by placing 10 large white beads, 10 large red beads and 20 large pink beads in

the bowl. Do not add the small beads this time.

2. If all 40 members of this population have an equal chance of getting to reproduce, the allele frequencies for

the colors in the population are p = 0.5 and q = 0.5 (see first column of Table 7).

3. Now let’s see what happens when only a subset of the population gets a chance to reproduce. Choose,

without looking, 10 beads from the bowl. They will make up a small group of individuals that reproduce.

Record the allele frequencies in this cluster in the second column of Table 7.

4. Replace the 10 beads to the population and mix well. Then pick 30 new beads. They represent a larger group

of individuals that get to reproduce. Calculate the allele frequencies in this group, and add them to the third

column in Table 7.

 

 

Table 7: Allele frequencies resulting from Genetic Drift

Observed Frequency in

Expected Frequency Small Group Large Group

n

40

 

p

0.5

 

q

0.5

 

Compare the allele frequencies of the three groups of reproducing individuals. How does group size affect the

makeup of the next generation?

 

When members of an old population emigrate to establish a new population, the allele frequencies in the new

population can be heavily influenced by chance.

5. Reestablish the old 10/20/10 beads population you have worked with before. Then pick (without looking) 6

individuals which will represent the 6 founding members of a new population.

6. Move these individuals to a new habitat. Calculate the allele frequencies and record them in Table 8.

 

Table 8: Allele Frequencies in a Founder Population

 

Allele Frequency

Initial population Founder Population

 

p

0.5

 

q

0.5

 

How do the allele frequencies of the small founder population compare to the larger original population?

 
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Experiment To Test The Effect(S) Various Compounds Have On The Osmotic Potential Of A Model Cell

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You design an experiment to test the effect(s) various compounds have on the osmotic potential of a model cell. You know that substances dissolved in aqueous or gaseous solutions tend to diffuse from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. You fill each of three (20mL) dialysis bags half full with one of these substances: i. 5% by weight of glucose in distilled water ii. 5% by weight of egg albumin (protein) in distilled water iii. 5% by weight of glass bead (one glass bead) in distilled water The dialysis bag is permeable to water but impermeable to glucose, albumin, and glass bead. a) If the final weight of each prepared bag is 10g, how many grams of glucose, albumin, and glass bead were added to each bag? b) The molecular weight of the protein is about 45 kilodaltons, and the molecular weight of glucose is about 180 daltons. How can you estimate the number of molecules of glucose in its 5% solution compared to the number of albumin molecules in its 5% solution? c) You put the dialysis bags into three separate flasks filled with distilled water. After 2 hours, you remove the bags and record these weights: Dialysis Bag Weight Glucose 13.2g Albumin 10.1g Glass bead 10.0g How do you explain these results? (hint: consider the surface-area-to-volume ratio, or concentration, of each substance based on its molecular weight) d) What results would you predict if you set up a similar experiment but used 5% glucose and 5% sucrose (MW 342 daltons)? II. How is the structure of a cell membrane related to its function? 1. Substances can move across the membrane via simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport. Fill in the table below with information about each process. a) Where does it occur in the membrane? b) Does it require a transport protein? c) Does it require an input of energy? Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport d) What functions might each of the three types of diffusion serve in an independent cell, such as Paramecium or an amoeba? e) What functions might each of the three types of diffusion serve in a multicellular organism, such as a human or a tree? 2. What would you need to observe or measure to determine whether a substance was moved across a membrane via each type of diffusion? Fill in the table below. Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport 3. The ratios of saturated to unsaturated phospholipids in an organism’s membranes can change in response to changes in environmental conditions. a) How do the properties of a membrane that contains a low percentage of unsaturated phospholipids compare with those of a membrane that contains a high percentage of unsaturated phospholipids? b) Considering what you know about the properties of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, would you expect an amoeba that lives in a pond in a cold northern climate to have a higher or lower percentage of saturated fatty acids in its membranes during the summer as compared to the winter? Explain your answer. 4. A fish is removed from a contaminated lake. You determine that a particular toxin (X) is present in its cells at concentration X = 1,500 Îźg/L. You place the fish in a tank full of clean water (X = 0 Îźg/L), and measure the toxin concentration in the fish cells each day for the next 10 days. a) How would you expect graphs of toxin concentration (in Îźg/L) in the fish and in the water to change over the 10 day period? (ex: concentration would start around 1,500 Îźg/L, then gradually decrease to 0, or toxin concentration would start and remain at 0, etc.) Describe (in as much detail as you can) what you would expect each graph of toxin concentration to look like: i. In the fish if the toxin is water soluble? ii. In the water if the toxin is water soluble? iii. In the fish if the toxin is fat soluble? iv. In the water if the toxin is fat soluble? b) After making your hypothesis, you test it by measuring the toxin levels in the fish at various times during its 10 days in the tank. You observe that the level of toxin in the fish drops from 1,500 Îźg/L to 750 Îźg/L and then stabilizes at 750 Îźg/L. You test the water in the tank and find that after it stabilizes, toxin is present in the water at concentration 750 Îźg/L also. i. Which of your predictions fits these data? ii. Which of the following processes is most likely eliminating the toxin from the fish? (Delete the incorrect answers) -Passive transport -First active, then passive transport – First passive, then active transport – Active transport c) Given the situation in part b), what should you do, in the short term, to continue to reduce the toxin level in the fish below 750 Îźg/L?

 
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Reflection 300 Words

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Reflection 9

 

 

We encounter visual arguments every day of our lives. One of the most common (and arguably most strident) of these is the advertisement. Within a static image, a magazine or billboard ad must instantly and memorably present its claims so that the viewer is left craving the product; however, in her documentary series Killing Us Softly, public speaker and activist Jean Kilbourne asserts that these ads do much more than just product placement: they tell us who we should be and what we should look like—especially if we are women. In order to understand some of the nuances of her argument as well as how to analyze visuals more effectively, watch the trailer for the documentary  Killing Us Softly 4 , and then respond to the questions below.

¡ Kilbourne begins her argument with the claim that ads market female beauty; however, she also adds that when women attempt to achieve the images of beauty in advertisements, “failure is inevitable.” Why specifically does she argue that women cannot reach these unrealistic beauty standards? Provide an example from the trailer of a specific way that ads make their brand of beauty unattainable.

¡ The presenter continues by arguing that women are often objectified within advertisements, literally turned into objects like beer bottles, cars, and video games (or even “dismembered” into sexualized body parts). What does Kilbourne argue are the very real consequences of depicting women in this manner? Do you agree with her? Why or why not?

¡ Kilbourne mentions that some actresses and models (specifically Kate Winslet) have spoken out against these unfair practices. What concrete changes would you like to see in the world of advertising in order to counteract some of the problematic messages sent to women? Be specific.

¡ Lastly, remember that at the beginning of the trailer, Kilbourne states, “[Advertisements] sell values. They sell concepts of … success, and perhaps most important, of normalcy.” What other ways do you see advertisements hawking a limited vision of success and normalcy (that don’t necessarily have to apply only to women)? Find an advertisement that you feel “sells” an unfair vision of who people should be, and explain exactly how you feel that the ad does this. (Feel free to provide a link for the advertisement you have chosen or attach it as a jpeg.)

 
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Leadership Development – Consolidated Products

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Assignment 1: Leadership Development – Consolidated Products

Due Week 3 and worth 175 points

Read the weekly assigned chapters and view the lectures/videos before beginning the assignment. Read the case study titled “Consolidated Product”, located at the end of Chapter 2, before starting this assignment.

Write a six to eight (6-8) page paper in which you:

  1. Describe the leadership style that Ben Samuels exhibited as the plant manager for Consolidated Products. Provide three (3) examples of his leadership actions and behavior. Discuss the pros and cons in each example you describe to support the response.
  2. Analyze the leadership style that Phil Jones exhibited as he took over to replace Ben. Provide three (3) examples of his leadership actions and behavior, assessing the pros and cons in each example you describe to support the response.
  3. Compare and contrast the leadership styles of Ben and Phil. Provide three (3) examples of the similarities and differences between these leaders and discuss how each leader might address contemporary leadership issues and challenges in Israel today.
  4. Discuss what you would do now with Phil, based on his performance. Discuss the pros and cons of your decision.
  5. Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar websites do not qualify as quality resources.

Your assignment must:

  • Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
  • Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.

The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:

  • Apply the concepts of project leadership to implement sound leadership practices and lead high-performance teams effectively in a project environment.
  • Determine the most appropriate leadership style (e.g., directive, consultative, participative, or delegative) in a project environment to manage the project effectively.
  • Analyze the project team using Jung theory and the four personality traits to understand human behavior and motivate team members.
  • Describe the leadership style that Ben Samuels exhibited as the plant manager. Provide three (3) examples of his leadership actions and behavior. Discuss the pros and cons in each example you describe to support the response.
  • Analyze the leadership style that Phil Jones exhibited as he took over for Ben. Provide three (3) examples of his leadership actions and behavior, assessing the pros and cons in each example you describe to support the response.
  • Compare and contrast the leadership styles of Ben and Phil. Provide three (3) examples of the similarities and differences between these leaders. Discuss how each leader might address contemporary leadership issues and challenges today.
  •  Discuss what you would do now with Phil. Discuss the pros and cons of your decision.

  • Chapter 2: Traits, Behaviors, and Relationships

    NOT FOR SALE

     

     

    YOUR LEADERSHIP CHALLENGE After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

    • Outline some personal traits and characteristics that are associated with effective leaders. • Identify your own traits that you can transform into strengths and bring to a leadership role. • Distinguish among various roles leaders play in organizations, including operations roles, collaborative

    roles, and advisory roles, and where your strengths might best fit.

    • Recognize autocratic versus democratic leadership behavior and the impact of each. • Know the distinction between people-oriented and task-oriented leadership behavior and when each

    should be used.

    • Understand how the theory of individualized leadership has broadened the understanding of relationships between leaders and followers.

    • Describe some key characteristics of entrepreneurial leaders.

    CHAPTER OUTLINE 36 The Trait Approach

    41 Know Your Strengths

    43 Behavior Approaches

    52 Individualized Leadership

    55 Entrepreneurial Traits and Behaviors

    In the Lead

    40 Marissa Mayer, Yahoo

    45 Warren Buffett, Berkshire Hathaway

    47 Col. Joe D. Dowdy and Maj. Gen. James Mattis, U.S. Marine Corps

    50 Denise Morrison, Campbell Soup Company, and Michael Arring- ton, TechCrunch

    Leader’s Self-Insight

    40 Rate Your Optimism

    47 What’s Your Leadership Orientation?

    55 Your ‘‘LMX’’ Relationship

    Leader’s Bookshelf

    38 Give and Take: A Revolutionary Approach to Success

    Leadership at Work

    58 Your Ideal Leader Traits

    Leadership Development: Cases for Analysis

    58 Consolidated Products

    60 Transition to Leadership

    Soon after her husband was elected the first African American president in theUnited States, Michelle Obama appeared on ‘‘The Tonight Show’’ wearing astylish outfit consisting of a pencil skirt, a yellow and brown tank top, and a mustard yellow cardigan. When then-host Jay Leno asked about her wardrobe, say- ing ‘‘I’m guessing about 60 grand? Sixty, 70 thousand for that outfit?’’ she replied, ‘‘Actually, this is a J. Crew ensemble.’’ The audience roared. Obama also incorpo- rated J. Crew items into her inauguration look. The man behind J. Crew, Millard S. (Mickey) Drexler, is a retail legend, known as both a visionary and something of a control freak. He turned Gap into a global fashion powerhouse in the 1990s, started Old Navy a decade or so later, and transformed J. Crew into a cult brand in the early years of the twenty-first century. When he took over as CEO, J. Crew was deeply in debt and struggling to survive. At the age of 70, Drexler is still going strong, but his leadership style and tendency to micromanage and focus on every detail, from vetting every new employee to deciding on the size of pockets or the look of a label, has recently come under scrutiny. By late 2015, even though J. Crew was still popular, sales were falling and the magic was fading. Yet owners continued to support Drexler and give him free rein as CEO. ‘‘Call it ‘the great man’ problem,’’

    35NOT FOR SALE

     

     

    one New York Times reporter phrased it, questioning whether any company should be so closely tied to the characteristics, style, and actions of one individual.1

    We introduced the idea of ‘‘Great Man’’ leadership in Chapter 1, and the Mickey Drexler example shows that the concept hasn’t completely died. The earliest leadership studies proposed that certain people had natural traits and abilities of power and influence that enabled them to put everything together and influence others in a way that other people could not. Although few today would argue that leadership is based on inborn traits, interest in the characteristics that define a good leader continues. As this example illustrates, current thinking on leadership incorpo- rates a variety of ideas and concepts from the past.

    Personal traits captured the imagination of the earliest leadership researchers, but if we look at any two successful and effective leaders they will likely share some traits but have others that are quite dissimilar. Each individual has a unique set of qualities, characteristics, and strengths to bring to a leadership role. In addition, leaders can learn to overcome some potentially limiting traits, such as a lack of self- confidence or a quick temper. Consequently, many researchers have examined the behavior of leaders to determine what behavioral features comprise leadership style and how particular behaviors relate to effective leadership.

    This chapter first examines the evolution of the trait approach and the impor- tance of leaders understanding and applying their own unique leadership strengths. Then we provide an overview of the behavior approach and introduce the theory of individualized leadership, which looks at behavior between a leader and each indi- vidual follower, differentiating one-on-one behavior from leader-to-group behavior. The path illuminated by the research into leader traits and behaviors is a foundation for the field of leadership studies and still enjoys remarkable dynamism for explain- ing leader success or failure.

    2-1 THE TRAIT APPROACH Traits are the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader, such as intelligence, honesty, self-confidence, and appearance. Research early in the twentieth century examined leaders who had achieved a level of greatness and hence became known as the Great Man approach. Fundamental to this theory was the idea that some peo- ple are born with traits that make them natural leaders. The Great Man approach sought to identify the traits leaders possessed that distinguished them from people who were not leaders. Generally, research found only a weak relationship between personal traits and leader success.2 Indeed, the diversity of traits that effective lead- ers possess indicates that leadership ability is not a genetic endowment.

    Nevertheless, with the advancement of the field of psychology during the 1940s and 1950s, trait approach researchers expanded their examination of personal attributes by using aptitude and psychological tests. These early studies looked at personality traits such as creativity and self-confidence, physical traits such as age and energy level, abilities such as knowledge and fluency of speech, social character- istics such as popularity and sociability, and work-related characteristics such as the desire to excel and persistence against obstacles.3

    In a 1948 literature review,4 Stogdill examined more than 100 studies based on the trait approach. He uncovered several traits that appeared consistent with effec- tive leadership, including general intelligence, initiative, interpersonal skills, self- confidence, drive for responsibility, and personal integrity. Stogdill’s findings also

    Traits the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader, such as intelligence, hon- esty, self-confidence, and appearance

    Great Man approach a leadership perspective that sought to identify the inher- ited traits leaders possessed that distinguished them from people who were not leaders

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    indicated, however, that the importance of a particular trait was often relative to the situation. Initiative, for example, may contribute to the success of a leader in an en- trepreneurial situation, but it may be irrelevant to a leader in a stable bureaucracy. Thus, possessing certain personal characteristics is no guarantee of success.

    Many researchers discontinued their efforts to identify leadership traits in light of Stogdill’s 1948 findings and turned their attention to examining leader behavior and leadership situations. However, others continued with expanded trait lists and research projects. Stogdill’s subsequent review of 163 trait studies conducted between 1948 and 1970 concluded that some personal traits do indeed seem to con- tribute to effective leadership.5 The study identified many of the same traits found in the 1948 survey, along with several additional characteristics, including aggressive- ness, independence, and tolerance for stress. However, Stogdill again cautioned that the value of a particular trait or set of traits varies with the organizational situation.

    In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in examining leadership traits. A review by Kirkpatrick and Locke identified a number of personal traits that distinguish leaders from nonleaders, including some pinpointed by Stogdill.6 Other studies have focused on followers’ perceptions and indicate that certain traits are associated with peo- ple’s perceptions of who is a leader. For example, one study found that the traits of intelli- gence, masculinity, and dominance were strongly related to how individuals perceived leaders.7 Others have found that charismatic CEOs are perceived to be more effective than other leaders, even though there is no evidence showing they actually are.8

    In summary, trait research has been an important part of leadership studies throughout the twentieth century and continues into the twenty-first, as illustrated by this chapter’s Leader’s Bookshelf, which suggests that a trait of selflessness is the secret to genuine and lasting leadership success. Several other traits, including opti- mism and a cheerful attitude, have recently gained attention as important for suc- cessful leaders. Britain’s Royal Navy takes cheerfulness so seriously that it tracks how leader cheerfulness affects morale and effectiveness.9 As discussed in Chapter 1, humility, including a willingness to admit mistakes and make oneself vulnerable, has emerged as an important trait in today’s collaborative world.10

    Exhibit 2.1 presents some of the traits and their respective categories that have been identified through trait research over the years. Many researchers still contend that some traits are essential to effective leadership, but only in combination with other factors.11 A few traits typically considered highly important for leadership are optimism, self-confidence, honesty and integrity, and drive.

    2-1a Optimism and Self-Confidence Recent research points to a positive outlook and a cheerful attitude as keys to effec- tive leadership.12 Optimism refers to a tendency to see the positive side of things and expect that things will turn out well. Numerous surveys indicate that optimism is the single characteristic most common to top executives. People rise to the top because they can see opportunities where others see problems and can instill in others a sense of hope for the future. Leaders at all levels need some degree of opti- mism to see possibilities even through the thickest fog and rally people around a vision for a better tomorrow. Although hundreds of experiments support the notion that people possess ingrained tendencies toward either optimism or pessimism, lead- ers can train themselves to deliberately focus on the positive rather than the negative and interpret situations in more positive, optimistic ways.13

    A related characteristic is having a positive attitude about oneself. Leaders who know themselves develop self-confidence, which is general assurance in one’s own

    Optimism a tendency to see the posi- tive side of things and expect that things will turn out well

    What I’ve really

    learned over time

    is that optimism is

    a very, very

    important part of

    leadership. . . .

    People don’t like

    to follow

    pessimists. Robert Iger, Chairman and CEO of The Walt Disney Company

    Self-confidence assurance in one’s own judgments, decision making, ideas, and capabilities

    NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO People generally prefer to follow leaders who are optimistic rather than pessimistic about the future. Complete the questionnaire in Leader’s Self-Insight 2.1 to assess your level of optimism.

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    judgments, decision making, ideas, and capabilities. Self-confidence doesn’t mean being arrogant and prideful but rather knowing and trusting in oneself. Self-confi- dence is related to self-efficacy, which refers to a person’s strong belief that he or she can successfully accomplish a specific task or outcome.14 A leader who has a posi- tive self-image and displays certainty about his or her own ability to achieve an out- come fosters confidence among followers, gains respect and admiration, and creates motivation and commitment among followers for the mission at hand.

    Active leaders need self-confidence and optimism. How many of us willingly fol- low someone who is jaded and pessimistic, or someone who obviously doesn’t believe in himself or herself? Leaders initiate change, and they often must make decisions without adequate information. Without the confidence to move forward and believe things will be okay, even if an occasional decision is wrong, leaders could be para- lyzed into inaction. Setbacks have to be overcome. Risks have to be taken. Competing points of view have to be managed, with some people left unsatisfied. The characteris- tics of optimism and self-confidence enable a leader to face all these challenges.15

    2-1b Honesty and Integrity Positive attitudes have to be tempered by strong ethics or leaders can get into trou- ble. Consider Bernard Madoff, who masterminded the largest financial fraud in his- tory and was sent to jail on 11 criminal charges, including securities fraud and perjury. As a leader, Madoff displayed strong self-confidence and optimism, which is

    LEADER’S BOOKSHELF Give and Take: A Revolutionary Approach to Success

    by Adam Grant

    Contrary to popular belief, good guys don’t always finish last. In fact, in the book Give and Take: A Revolutionary Approach to Success, Adam Grant asserts that a trait of selflessness can help leaders be more effective and more successful. Grant, the youngest tenured professor ever at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylva- nia, suggests that good leaders are those who give the most and view their success as ‘‘individual achievements that have a positive impact on others.’’

    ARE YOU A GIVER, A TAKER, OR A MATCHER? Grant proposes that we all assume one of three basic approaches toward others— that of a giver, a taker, or a matcher.

    • Givers focus on what others need and give selflessly. They give time and energy, or anything else that is asked of them, without expecting anything in return. Grant uses the example of billionaire Jon Huntsman Sr., founder of Huntsman Chemical,

    who once left $200 million on the ta- ble when negotiating with a man whose wife had just died, simply because he thought it was the right thing to do. As leaders, givers more easily delegate and collaborate with others, listen to others, give credit to others, and share power and responsibility.

    • Takers put their own interests first. Takers are selfish people who want to win, no matter who else loses. As leaders, they typically try to influence others by gaining dominance and control over them. They collaborate only when it benefits them person- ally and rarely share credit for suc- cesses. Takers often win in the short run but they are much less likely to build success over the long term.

    • Matchers strive for a balance of giving and taking. Matchers try to achieve an equal balance between what they give and what they get in return. As leaders, they network and collaborate strategically, expecting

    something in return that will be of benefit to them. They play a jug- gling act in an effort to serve their individual interests while still being fair to others.

    DOES IT PAY TO BE NICE? Grant applies scientific research and weaves in numerous real-life stories to support his premise that givers end up being the most successful among the three groups. His advice is to ‘‘focus attention and energy on making a dif- ference in the lives of others, and suc- cess might follow as a by-product.’’ Leaders who are givers help a wide range of people in the organization, de- velop everyone’s skills to support the greater good, and strive to bring out the best in everyone. By investing in the success of their followers, leaders who are givers build their own success and a legacy of enduring greatness.

    Source: Give and Take, by Adam Grant, is pub- lished by Viking.

    NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO As a leader, you can develop the personal traits of self- confidence, integrity, and drive, which are important for successful leadership in every organization and situation. You can work to keep an optimistic attitude and be ethical in your decisions and actions.

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    one reason he was able to attract so many investors. The problem was that he didn’t have a strong ethical grounding to match. Due to Madoff’s scam, thousands of people were swindled out of their life’s savings, charities and foundations were ruined, and pension funds were wiped out, while Madoff and his wife lived in luxury.16

    Effective leaders are ethical leaders. One aspect of being an ethical leader is being honest with followers, customers, shareholders, and the public, and maintain- ing one’s integrity. Honesty refers to truthfulness and nondeception. It implies an openness that followers welcome. Integrity means that a leader’s character is whole, integrated, and grounded in solid ethical principles, and he or she acts in keeping with those principles. Leaders who model their ethical convictions through their daily actions command admiration, respect, and loyalty. Honesty and integrity are the foundation of trust between leaders and followers.

    Sadly, trust is sorely lacking in many organizations following years of corporate scandals and rampant greed. Leaders need the traits of honesty and integrity to rebuild trusting and productive relationships. People today are wary of authority and the deceptive use of power, and they are hungry for leaders who hold high moral standards. Successful leaders have also been found to be highly consistent, doing exactly what they say they will do when they say they will do it. Successful leaders prove themselves trustworthy. They adhere to basic ethical principles and consistently apply them in their leadership. One survey of 1,500 managers asked the values most desired in leaders. Honesty and integrity topped the list. The authors concluded:

    Honesty is absolutely essential to leadership. After all, if we are willing to follow someone, whether it be into battle or into the boardroom, we first want to assure ourselves that the person is worthy of our trust. We want to know that he or she is being truthful, ethical, and principled. We want to be fully confident in the in- tegrity of our leaders.17

    EXHIBIT 2.1 Some Leader Characteristics

    Personal Characteristics Social Characteristics Energy Sociability, interpersonal skills

    Passion Cooperativeness

    Humility Ability to enlist cooperation

    Physical stamina Tact, diplomacy

    Intelligence and Ability Work-Related Characteristics Intelligence, cognitive ability Drive, desire to excel

    Knowledge Dependability

    Judgment, decisiveness Fair-mindedness

    Personality Perseverance, tenacity Optimism Social Background Cheerfulness Education

    Self-confidence Mobility

    Honesty and integrity

    Charisma

    Desire to lead

    Independence

    Sources: Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Management Applications, 3rd ed. (New York : The Free Press, 1990), pp. 80–81; S. A. Kirkpatrick and E. A. Locke, ‘‘Leadership: Do Traits Matter?’’ Academy of Management Executive 5, no. 2 (1991), pp. 48–60; and James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, The Leadership Challenge: How to Get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990).

    Honesty truthfulness and nondeception

    Integrity the quality of being whole and integrated and acting in accordance with solid ethi- cal principles

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    2-1c Drive Another characteristic considered essential for effective leadership is drive. Leaders of- ten are responsible for initiating new projects as well as guiding projects to successful completion. Drive refers to high motivation that creates a high effort level by a leader. Leaders with drive seek achievement, have energy and tenacity, and are often per- ceived as ambitious. If people don’t strive to achieve something, they rarely do. Ambi- tion can enable leaders to set challenging goals and take initiative to reach them.18

    A strong drive is also associated with high energy. Leaders work long hours over many years. They have stamina and are vigorous and full of life in order to handle the pace, the demands, and the challenges of leadership. During her first two years at Google, Marissa Mayer says she worked 100 hours a week. That pace likely didn’t slow in her job at Yahoo.

    LEADER’S SELF-INSIGHT 2.1

    Rate Your Optimism

    Instructions: This questionnaire is designed to assess your level of optimism as reflected in your hopefulness about the future. There are no right or wrong answers. Please indicate your personal feelings about whether each statement is Mostly False or Mostly True by checking the answer that best describes your attitude or feeling.

    Mostly False

    Mostly True

    1. I nearly always expect a lot from life. ______ ______ 2. I try to anticipate when things will

    go wrong. ______ ______ 3. I always see the positive side of

    things. ______ ______ 4. I often start out expecting the

    worst, although things usually work out okay. ______ ______

    5. I expect more good things to happen to me than bad. ______ ______

    6. I often feel concern about how things will turn out for me. ______ ______

    7. If something can go wrong for me, it usually does. ______ ______

    8. Even in difficult times, I usually expect the best. ______ ______

    9. I am cheerful and positive most of the time. ______ ______

    10. I consider myself an optimistic person. ______ ______

    Scoring and Interpretation Give yourself one point for checking Mostly True for items 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10. Also give yourself one point for checking Mostly False for items 2, 4, 6, 7. Enter your score here: ______ If your score is 8 or higher, it may mean that you are high on opti- mism. If your score is 3 or less, your view about the future may be pessimistic. For the most part, people like to follow a leader who is optimistic rather than negative about the future. However, too much optimism may exaggerate positive expectations that are never fulfilled. If your score is low, what can you do to view the world through a more optimistic lens?

    Source: These questions were created based on several sources.

    IN THE LEAD Marissa Mayer, Yahoo Marissa Mayer set herself some tough goals as the new president and CEO of Yahoo, but being tough is part of Mayer’s DNA. Mayer is known for being incredibly energetic and ambitious. She loves hard work and challenge. ‘‘She doesn’t need any sleep,’’ said Craig Silverstein, who worked with her at Google and now develops software for Kahn Academy.

    Drive high motivation that creates a high effort level by a leader

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    Working 100-hour weeks certainly isn’t necessary for effective leadership, but all leaders have to display drive and energy to be successful. Clearly, various traits such as drive, self-confidence, optimism, and honesty have great value for leaders. One study of 600 executives by Hay Group, a global organizational and human resources consulting firm, found that 75 percent of the successful executives studied possessed the characteristics of self-confidence and drive.20

    In Chapter 4, we will further consider individual characteristics and qualities that play a role in leadership effectiveness. However, good leaders know it isn’t about identifying specific individual traits but rather understanding one’s own unique set of strengths and capabilities and learning how to make the most of them.21

    2-2 KNOW YOUR STRENGTHS Some people tend to think a leader should have a complete set of skills, characteris- tics, and abilities to handle any problem, challenge, or opportunity that comes along. This myth of the ‘‘complete leader’’ can cause stress and frustration for lead- ers and followers, as well as damage to the organization.22 Interdependence is the key to effective leadership. Sixty percent of leaders in one survey acknowledge that leaders face challenges that go beyond any individual’s capabilities.23 Therefore, the best leaders recognize and hone their strengths while trusting and collaborating with others to make up for their weak points.

    Everyone has strengths, but many leaders fail to recognize and apply them, often because they are hampered by the idea that they should be good at everything. Benjamin Franklin referred to wasted strengths as ‘‘sundials in the shade.’’24 Only when leaders understand their strengths can they use these abilities effectively to make their best contribution.

    2-2a What Are Strengths? A strength arises from a natural talent that has been supported and reinforced with knowledge and skills.25 Talents can be thought of as innate traits and naturally

    That’s clearly an overstatement, but Mayer has demonstrated that she has almost superhuman stamina and a strong drive to succeed. In the early years at Google, she routinely worked 100-hour weeks and occasionally pulled all-nighters. Soon after joining Yahoo as CEO, Mayer had her first baby and returned to work two weeks after the delivery.

    Even in high school, Mayer was known as an overachiever who refused to settle for less than the best from herself or others. As captain of the pom-pom squad, she scheduled practices that lasted for hours to make sure everyone was synchronized. It was during her first management job at Google that she incorporated the idea of pushing beyond her comfort zone into her career philosophy. She isn’t afraid to take risks in the interest of helping the team and organization succeed. Mayer created a firestorm of criticism when she issued a policy early in her tenure at Yahoo that employees can no longer work from home, but she stuck by her decision without regrets or apologies. She believes Yahoo is in a crisis situation and to succeed needs the creative energy that comes from people working face to face and side by side. Some people believe she will eventually relax the tough ‘‘all hands in the office’’ policy, since flexibility is another of her characteristics. However, she won’t relax her high standards or the requirement that employees be as dedicated to Yahoo’s success as she is.19

    Strength a natural talent or ability that has been supported and reinforced with learned knowledge and skills

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    recurring patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior. One person might be naturally outgoing and curious, for example; another might have a natural talent for being organized. Once recognized, talents can be turned into strengths by consciously developing and enhancing them with learning and practice. Unless they are honed and strengthened and put to use, talents are merely aspects of one’s potential.

    One neat thing about understanding your strengths is the philosophy ‘‘concen- trate on your strengths, not your weaknesses.’’ You excel in life by maximizing your strengths, not by fixing your weaknesses. When you live and work from your strengths, you are more motivated, competent, and satisfied. Strengths are important because you can focus your life around them, and your energy, enthusiasm, and effectiveness can be the basis of your leadership. Why devote your energy to trying to fix your weaknesses or expend much thought and effort performing tasks that don’t match your strengths? When people use their talents and strengths, they feel good and enjoy their work without extra effort; hence they are effective and make a positive contribution.

    How does a leader know which traits or behavior patterns can be turned into strengths? Warren Buffett recommends that people do what fits their natural interests and abilities, which is reflected in the work they like to do. Buffett says he finds inves- ting so much fun that he would do it for free. Buffett tried other work early in his career but found it so unsatisfying that he knew he wouldn’t want to do it for any amount of money. The legendary self-made billionaire and chairman of Berkshire Hathaway was the third richest person in the world in 2015. Yet it isn’t the money that drives him, but the love of the work. His career advice is to find work or a career that you really enjoy, and it will fit the natural strengths of your mental wiring.26

    2-2b Matching Strengths with Roles Recent research suggests that different leader strengths might be better suited to dif- ferent types of leadership roles.27 Exhibit 2.2 illustrates three types of leadership roles identified in today’s organizations by a team of experts at Hay Group. The researchers found that, although there is a core set of competencies that all leaders need, there is significant variation in the personal characteristics, behaviors, and skills that correlate with success in the different roles.

    The operational role is the closest to a traditional, vertically oriented manage- ment role, where an executive has direct control over people and resources to

    EXHIBIT 2.2 Three Types of Leadership Roles

    Operational Role Collaborative Role Advisory Role

    Vertical management positions

    Example: Division President Project Manager Human Resources Manager

    Horizontal responsibilities

    Providing guidance and support

    Operational role a vertically oriented leader- ship role in which an execu- tive has direct control over people and resources and the position power to ac- complish results

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    accomplish results. Operational leaders fill traditional line and general management positions in a business, for example. They set goals, establish plans, and get things done primarily through the vertical hierarchy and the use of position power. Opera- tional leaders are doggedly focused on delivering results. They need high self- confidence and tend to be assertive, always pushing forward and raising the bar. Successful operational leaders are typically analytical and knowledgeable, yet they also have the ability to translate their knowledge into a vision that others can become passionate about.

    The collaborative role is a horizontal role and includes people such as project managers, matrix managers, and team leaders in today’s more horizontally organ- ized companies. This role, which has grown tremendously in importance in recent years, is quite challenging. Leaders in collaborative roles typically don’t have the strong position power of the operational role. They often work behind the scenes, using their personal power to influence others and get things done. Collaborative leaders need excellent people skills in order to network, build relationships, and obtain agreement through personal influence. They also are highly proactive and te- nacious, and they exhibit extreme flexibility to cope with the ambiguity and uncer- tainty associated with the collaborative role.

    Leaders in an advisory role provide guidance and support to other people and departments in the organization. Advisory leadership roles are found, for example, in departments such as legal, finance, and human resources. These leaders are responsible for developing broad organizational capabilities rather than accomplish- ing specific business results. Advisory leaders need great people skills and the ability to influence others through communication, knowledge, and personal persuasion. In addition, leaders in advisory roles need exceptionally high levels of honesty and in- tegrity to build trust and keep the organization on solid ethical ground.

    The Hay Group research findings shed new light on the types of roles leaders fill in today’s organizations and emphasize that an individual’s strengths can influence how effective a leader might be in a particular role. Leadership success partly depends on matching leaders with roles where their strengths can be most effective.

    2-3 BEHAVIOR APPROACHES As suggested in the previous discussion, strengths are not just personal traits but also patterns of behavior. Rather than looking at an individual’s personal traits, diverse research programs on leadership behavior have sought to uncover the behav- iors that effective leaders engage in. Behaviors can be learned more readily than traits, enabling leadership to be accessible to all.

    2-3a Autocratic versus Democratic Behaviors One study that served as a precursor to the behavior approach recognized autocratic and democratic leadership styles. An autocratic leader is one who tends to centralize authority and derive power from position, control of rewards, and coercion. A democratic leader delegates authority to others, encourages participation, relies on subordinates’ knowledge for completion of tasks, and depends on subordinate respect for influence.

    The first studies on these leadership behaviors were conducted at the University of Iowa by Kurt Lewin and his associates.28 The research included groups of chil- dren, each with its own designated adult leader who was instructed to act in either

    NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO As a leader, you can understand the type of leadership role in which your strengths would be most effective and satisfying. You can pursue an operational, collaborative, or advisory leadership role depending on your natural tendencies.

    Collaborative role a horizontal leadership role (such as team leader) in which the leader often works behind the scenes and uses personal power to influence others and get things done.

    Advisory role a leadership role that pro- vides advice, guidance, and support to other people and departments in the organi- zation

    Autocratic a leader who tends to cen- tralize authority and derive power from position, control of rewards, and coercion

    Democratic a leader who delegates authority to others, encour- ages participation, relies on subordinates’ knowledge for completion of tasks, and depends on subordinate respect for influence

    CHAPTER 2 TRAITS, BEHAVIORS, AND RELATIONSHIPS 43

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    an autocratic or a democratic style. These experiments produced some interesting findings. The groups with autocratic leaders performed highly so long as the leader was present to supervise them. However, group members were displeased with the close, autocratic style of leadership, and feelings of hostility frequently arose. The performance of groups who were assigned democratic leaders was almost as good, and these groups were characterized by positive feelings rather than hostility. In addition, under the democratic style of leadership, group members performed well even when the leader was absent. The participative techniques and majority-rule de- cision making used by the democratic leader trained and involved the group mem- bers so that they performed well with or without the leader present. These characteristics of democratic leadership may partly explain why the empowerment of employees is a popular trend in companies today. This chapter’s Consider This box presents the notion that democratic leaders may get better results because they allow followers to feel their own power and worth.

    This early work implied that leaders were either autocratic or democratic in their approach. However, further work by Tannenbaum and Schmidt indicated that leadership behavior could exist on a continuum reflecting different amounts of em- ployee participation.29 Thus, one leader might be autocratic (boss-centered), another democratic (subordinate-centered), and a third a mix of the two styles. Exhibit 2.3 illustrates the leadership continuum.

    Tannenbaum and Schmidt also suggested that the extent to which leaders should be boss-centered or subordinate-centered depended on organizational circumstances and that leaders might adjust their behaviors to fit the circumstances. For example, if there is time pressure on a leader, or if it takes too long for subordinates to learn how to make decisions, the leader will tend to use an autocratic style. When subordinates are able to learn decision-making skills readily, a democratic style can be used. Also, the greater the skill difference, the more autocratic the leader approach because it is difficult to bring subordinates up to the leader’s expertise level.30

    ConsiderThis! Minimal Leadership

    When the Master governs, the people are hardly aware that he [she] exists.

    Next best is a leader who is loved.

    Next, one who is feared.

    The worst is one who is despised.

    If you don’t trust the people, you make them untrustworthy.

    The Master doesn’t talk, he [she] acts.

    When his [her] work is done, the people say, ‘‘Amazing: we did it all by ourselves.’’

    Source: From Tao Te Ching, translated by S. Mitchell, (New York: Harper Perennial, 1988), p. 17.

    NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO As a leader, you can use a democratic leadership style to help followers develop decision-making skills and perform well without close supervision. An autocratic style might be appropriate when there is time pressure or followers have low skill levels.

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    Jack Hartnett, former president of D. L. Rogers Corporation and franchise owner of 54 Sonic drive-in restaurants, provides an example of the autocratic lead- ership style. He tells workers to ‘‘do it the way we tell you to do it,’’ rather than ask- ing for their input or suggestions.31 The style works well in the fast-food restaurant business where turnover is typically high and many employees are young and low skilled. In contrast, Warren Buffett, introduced earlier, is an excellent example of a democratic leader.

    EXHIBIT 2.3 Leadership Continuum

    Subordinate-Centered Leadership

    Boss-Centered Leadership

    Manager makes decision and announces it

    Manager “sells” decision

 
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