Chapter 2: Traits, Behaviors, and Relationships
NOT FOR SALE
YOUR LEADERSHIP CHALLENGE After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
⢠Outline some personal traits and characteristics that are associated with effective leaders. ⢠Identify your own traits that you can transform into strengths and bring to a leadership role. ⢠Distinguish among various roles leaders play in organizations, including operations roles, collaborative
roles, and advisory roles, and where your strengths might best fit.
⢠Recognize autocratic versus democratic leadership behavior and the impact of each. ⢠Know the distinction between people-oriented and task-oriented leadership behavior and when each
should be used.
⢠Understand how the theory of individualized leadership has broadened the understanding of relationships between leaders and followers.
⢠Describe some key characteristics of entrepreneurial leaders.
CHAPTER OUTLINE 36 The Trait Approach
41 Know Your Strengths
43 Behavior Approaches
52 Individualized Leadership
55 Entrepreneurial Traits and Behaviors
In the Lead
40 Marissa Mayer, Yahoo
45 Warren Buffett, Berkshire Hathaway
47 Col. Joe D. Dowdy and Maj. Gen. James Mattis, U.S. Marine Corps
50 Denise Morrison, Campbell Soup Company, and Michael Arring- ton, TechCrunch
Leaderâs Self-Insight
40 Rate Your Optimism
47 Whatâs Your Leadership Orientation?
55 Your ââLMXââ Relationship
Leaderâs Bookshelf
38 Give and Take: A Revolutionary Approach to Success
Leadership at Work
58 Your Ideal Leader Traits
Leadership Development: Cases for Analysis
58 Consolidated Products
60 Transition to Leadership
Soon after her husband was elected the first African American president in theUnited States, Michelle Obama appeared on ââThe Tonight Showââ wearing astylish outfit consisting of a pencil skirt, a yellow and brown tank top, and a mustard yellow cardigan. When then-host Jay Leno asked about her wardrobe, say- ing ââIâm guessing about 60 grand? Sixty, 70 thousand for that outfit?ââ she replied, ââActually, this is a J. Crew ensemble.ââ The audience roared. Obama also incorpo- rated J. Crew items into her inauguration look. The man behind J. Crew, Millard S. (Mickey) Drexler, is a retail legend, known as both a visionary and something of a control freak. He turned Gap into a global fashion powerhouse in the 1990s, started Old Navy a decade or so later, and transformed J. Crew into a cult brand in the early years of the twenty-first century. When he took over as CEO, J. Crew was deeply in debt and struggling to survive. At the age of 70, Drexler is still going strong, but his leadership style and tendency to micromanage and focus on every detail, from vetting every new employee to deciding on the size of pockets or the look of a label, has recently come under scrutiny. By late 2015, even though J. Crew was still popular, sales were falling and the magic was fading. Yet owners continued to support Drexler and give him free rein as CEO. ââCall it âthe great manâ problem,ââ
35NOT FOR SALE
one New York Times reporter phrased it, questioning whether any company should be so closely tied to the characteristics, style, and actions of one individual.1
We introduced the idea of ââGreat Manââ leadership in Chapter 1, and the Mickey Drexler example shows that the concept hasnât completely died. The earliest leadership studies proposed that certain people had natural traits and abilities of power and influence that enabled them to put everything together and influence others in a way that other people could not. Although few today would argue that leadership is based on inborn traits, interest in the characteristics that define a good leader continues. As this example illustrates, current thinking on leadership incorpo- rates a variety of ideas and concepts from the past.
Personal traits captured the imagination of the earliest leadership researchers, but if we look at any two successful and effective leaders they will likely share some traits but have others that are quite dissimilar. Each individual has a unique set of qualities, characteristics, and strengths to bring to a leadership role. In addition, leaders can learn to overcome some potentially limiting traits, such as a lack of self- confidence or a quick temper. Consequently, many researchers have examined the behavior of leaders to determine what behavioral features comprise leadership style and how particular behaviors relate to effective leadership.
This chapter first examines the evolution of the trait approach and the impor- tance of leaders understanding and applying their own unique leadership strengths. Then we provide an overview of the behavior approach and introduce the theory of individualized leadership, which looks at behavior between a leader and each indi- vidual follower, differentiating one-on-one behavior from leader-to-group behavior. The path illuminated by the research into leader traits and behaviors is a foundation for the field of leadership studies and still enjoys remarkable dynamism for explain- ing leader success or failure.
2-1 THE TRAIT APPROACH Traits are the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader, such as intelligence, honesty, self-confidence, and appearance. Research early in the twentieth century examined leaders who had achieved a level of greatness and hence became known as the Great Man approach. Fundamental to this theory was the idea that some peo- ple are born with traits that make them natural leaders. The Great Man approach sought to identify the traits leaders possessed that distinguished them from people who were not leaders. Generally, research found only a weak relationship between personal traits and leader success.2 Indeed, the diversity of traits that effective lead- ers possess indicates that leadership ability is not a genetic endowment.
Nevertheless, with the advancement of the field of psychology during the 1940s and 1950s, trait approach researchers expanded their examination of personal attributes by using aptitude and psychological tests. These early studies looked at personality traits such as creativity and self-confidence, physical traits such as age and energy level, abilities such as knowledge and fluency of speech, social character- istics such as popularity and sociability, and work-related characteristics such as the desire to excel and persistence against obstacles.3
In a 1948 literature review,4 Stogdill examined more than 100 studies based on the trait approach. He uncovered several traits that appeared consistent with effec- tive leadership, including general intelligence, initiative, interpersonal skills, self- confidence, drive for responsibility, and personal integrity. Stogdillâs findings also
Traits the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader, such as intelligence, hon- esty, self-confidence, and appearance
Great Man approach a leadership perspective that sought to identify the inher- ited traits leaders possessed that distinguished them from people who were not leaders
36 PART 2 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP
NOT FOR SALE
indicated, however, that the importance of a particular trait was often relative to the situation. Initiative, for example, may contribute to the success of a leader in an en- trepreneurial situation, but it may be irrelevant to a leader in a stable bureaucracy. Thus, possessing certain personal characteristics is no guarantee of success.
Many researchers discontinued their efforts to identify leadership traits in light of Stogdillâs 1948 findings and turned their attention to examining leader behavior and leadership situations. However, others continued with expanded trait lists and research projects. Stogdillâs subsequent review of 163 trait studies conducted between 1948 and 1970 concluded that some personal traits do indeed seem to con- tribute to effective leadership.5 The study identified many of the same traits found in the 1948 survey, along with several additional characteristics, including aggressive- ness, independence, and tolerance for stress. However, Stogdill again cautioned that the value of a particular trait or set of traits varies with the organizational situation.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in examining leadership traits. A review by Kirkpatrick and Locke identified a number of personal traits that distinguish leaders from nonleaders, including some pinpointed by Stogdill.6 Other studies have focused on followersâ perceptions and indicate that certain traits are associated with peo- pleâs perceptions of who is a leader. For example, one study found that the traits of intelli- gence, masculinity, and dominance were strongly related to how individuals perceived leaders.7 Others have found that charismatic CEOs are perceived to be more effective than other leaders, even though there is no evidence showing they actually are.8
In summary, trait research has been an important part of leadership studies throughout the twentieth century and continues into the twenty-first, as illustrated by this chapterâs Leaderâs Bookshelf, which suggests that a trait of selflessness is the secret to genuine and lasting leadership success. Several other traits, including opti- mism and a cheerful attitude, have recently gained attention as important for suc- cessful leaders. Britainâs Royal Navy takes cheerfulness so seriously that it tracks how leader cheerfulness affects morale and effectiveness.9 As discussed in Chapter 1, humility, including a willingness to admit mistakes and make oneself vulnerable, has emerged as an important trait in todayâs collaborative world.10
Exhibit 2.1 presents some of the traits and their respective categories that have been identified through trait research over the years. Many researchers still contend that some traits are essential to effective leadership, but only in combination with other factors.11 A few traits typically considered highly important for leadership are optimism, self-confidence, honesty and integrity, and drive.
2-1a Optimism and Self-Confidence Recent research points to a positive outlook and a cheerful attitude as keys to effec- tive leadership.12 Optimism refers to a tendency to see the positive side of things and expect that things will turn out well. Numerous surveys indicate that optimism is the single characteristic most common to top executives. People rise to the top because they can see opportunities where others see problems and can instill in others a sense of hope for the future. Leaders at all levels need some degree of opti- mism to see possibilities even through the thickest fog and rally people around a vision for a better tomorrow. Although hundreds of experiments support the notion that people possess ingrained tendencies toward either optimism or pessimism, lead- ers can train themselves to deliberately focus on the positive rather than the negative and interpret situations in more positive, optimistic ways.13
A related characteristic is having a positive attitude about oneself. Leaders who know themselves develop self-confidence, which is general assurance in oneâs own
Optimism a tendency to see the posi- tive side of things and expect that things will turn out well
What Iâve really
learned over time
is that optimism is
a very, very
important part of
leadership. . . .
People donât like
to follow
pessimists. Robert Iger, Chairman and CEO of The Walt Disney Company
Self-confidence assurance in oneâs own judgments, decision making, ideas, and capabilities
NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO People generally prefer to follow leaders who are optimistic rather than pessimistic about the future. Complete the questionnaire in Leaderâs Self-Insight 2.1 to assess your level of optimism.
CHAPTER 2 TRAITS, BEHAVIORS, AND RELATIONSHIPS 37
NOT FOR SALE
judgments, decision making, ideas, and capabilities. Self-confidence doesnât mean being arrogant and prideful but rather knowing and trusting in oneself. Self-confi- dence is related to self-efficacy, which refers to a personâs strong belief that he or she can successfully accomplish a specific task or outcome.14 A leader who has a posi- tive self-image and displays certainty about his or her own ability to achieve an out- come fosters confidence among followers, gains respect and admiration, and creates motivation and commitment among followers for the mission at hand.
Active leaders need self-confidence and optimism. How many of us willingly fol- low someone who is jaded and pessimistic, or someone who obviously doesnât believe in himself or herself? Leaders initiate change, and they often must make decisions without adequate information. Without the confidence to move forward and believe things will be okay, even if an occasional decision is wrong, leaders could be para- lyzed into inaction. Setbacks have to be overcome. Risks have to be taken. Competing points of view have to be managed, with some people left unsatisfied. The characteris- tics of optimism and self-confidence enable a leader to face all these challenges.15
2-1b Honesty and Integrity Positive attitudes have to be tempered by strong ethics or leaders can get into trou- ble. Consider Bernard Madoff, who masterminded the largest financial fraud in his- tory and was sent to jail on 11 criminal charges, including securities fraud and perjury. As a leader, Madoff displayed strong self-confidence and optimism, which is
LEADERâS BOOKSHELF Give and Take: A Revolutionary Approach to Success
by Adam Grant
Contrary to popular belief, good guys donât always finish last. In fact, in the book Give and Take: A Revolutionary Approach to Success, Adam Grant asserts that a trait of selflessness can help leaders be more effective and more successful. Grant, the youngest tenured professor ever at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylva- nia, suggests that good leaders are those who give the most and view their success as ââindividual achievements that have a positive impact on others.ââ
ARE YOU A GIVER, A TAKER, OR A MATCHER? Grant proposes that we all assume one of three basic approaches toward othersâ that of a giver, a taker, or a matcher.
⢠Givers focus on what others need and give selflessly. They give time and energy, or anything else that is asked of them, without expecting anything in return. Grant uses the example of billionaire Jon Huntsman Sr., founder of Huntsman Chemical,
who once left $200 million on the ta- ble when negotiating with a man whose wife had just died, simply because he thought it was the right thing to do. As leaders, givers more easily delegate and collaborate with others, listen to others, give credit to others, and share power and responsibility.
⢠Takers put their own interests first. Takers are selfish people who want to win, no matter who else loses. As leaders, they typically try to influence others by gaining dominance and control over them. They collaborate only when it benefits them person- ally and rarely share credit for suc- cesses. Takers often win in the short run but they are much less likely to build success over the long term.
⢠Matchers strive for a balance of giving and taking. Matchers try to achieve an equal balance between what they give and what they get in return. As leaders, they network and collaborate strategically, expecting
something in return that will be of benefit to them. They play a jug- gling act in an effort to serve their individual interests while still being fair to others.
DOES IT PAY TO BE NICE? Grant applies scientific research and weaves in numerous real-life stories to support his premise that givers end up being the most successful among the three groups. His advice is to ââfocus attention and energy on making a dif- ference in the lives of others, and suc- cess might follow as a by-product.ââ Leaders who are givers help a wide range of people in the organization, de- velop everyoneâs skills to support the greater good, and strive to bring out the best in everyone. By investing in the success of their followers, leaders who are givers build their own success and a legacy of enduring greatness.
Source: Give and Take, by Adam Grant, is pub- lished by Viking.
NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO As a leader, you can develop the personal traits of self- confidence, integrity, and drive, which are important for successful leadership in every organization and situation. You can work to keep an optimistic attitude and be ethical in your decisions and actions.
38 NOT FOR SALE
one reason he was able to attract so many investors. The problem was that he didnât have a strong ethical grounding to match. Due to Madoffâs scam, thousands of people were swindled out of their lifeâs savings, charities and foundations were ruined, and pension funds were wiped out, while Madoff and his wife lived in luxury.16
Effective leaders are ethical leaders. One aspect of being an ethical leader is being honest with followers, customers, shareholders, and the public, and maintain- ing oneâs integrity. Honesty refers to truthfulness and nondeception. It implies an openness that followers welcome. Integrity means that a leaderâs character is whole, integrated, and grounded in solid ethical principles, and he or she acts in keeping with those principles. Leaders who model their ethical convictions through their daily actions command admiration, respect, and loyalty. Honesty and integrity are the foundation of trust between leaders and followers.
Sadly, trust is sorely lacking in many organizations following years of corporate scandals and rampant greed. Leaders need the traits of honesty and integrity to rebuild trusting and productive relationships. People today are wary of authority and the deceptive use of power, and they are hungry for leaders who hold high moral standards. Successful leaders have also been found to be highly consistent, doing exactly what they say they will do when they say they will do it. Successful leaders prove themselves trustworthy. They adhere to basic ethical principles and consistently apply them in their leadership. One survey of 1,500 managers asked the values most desired in leaders. Honesty and integrity topped the list. The authors concluded:
Honesty is absolutely essential to leadership. After all, if we are willing to follow someone, whether it be into battle or into the boardroom, we first want to assure ourselves that the person is worthy of our trust. We want to know that he or she is being truthful, ethical, and principled. We want to be fully confident in the in- tegrity of our leaders.17
EXHIBIT 2.1 Some Leader Characteristics
Personal Characteristics Social Characteristics Energy Sociability, interpersonal skills
Passion Cooperativeness
Humility Ability to enlist cooperation
Physical stamina Tact, diplomacy
Intelligence and Ability Work-Related Characteristics Intelligence, cognitive ability Drive, desire to excel
Knowledge Dependability
Judgment, decisiveness Fair-mindedness
Personality Perseverance, tenacity Optimism Social Background Cheerfulness Education
Self-confidence Mobility
Honesty and integrity
Charisma
Desire to lead
Independence
Sources: Bass and Stogdillâs Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Management Applications, 3rd ed. (New York : The Free Press, 1990), pp. 80â81; S. A. Kirkpatrick and E. A. Locke, ââLeadership: Do Traits Matter?ââ Academy of Management Executive 5, no. 2 (1991), pp. 48â60; and James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, The Leadership Challenge: How to Get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990).
Honesty truthfulness and nondeception
Integrity the quality of being whole and integrated and acting in accordance with solid ethi- cal principles
CHAPTER 2 TRAITS, BEHAVIORS, AND RELATIONSHIPS 39
NOT FOR SALE
2-1c Drive Another characteristic considered essential for effective leadership is drive. Leaders of- ten are responsible for initiating new projects as well as guiding projects to successful completion. Drive refers to high motivation that creates a high effort level by a leader. Leaders with drive seek achievement, have energy and tenacity, and are often per- ceived as ambitious. If people donât strive to achieve something, they rarely do. Ambi- tion can enable leaders to set challenging goals and take initiative to reach them.18
A strong drive is also associated with high energy. Leaders work long hours over many years. They have stamina and are vigorous and full of life in order to handle the pace, the demands, and the challenges of leadership. During her first two years at Google, Marissa Mayer says she worked 100 hours a week. That pace likely didnât slow in her job at Yahoo.
LEADERâS SELF-INSIGHT 2.1
Rate Your Optimism
Instructions: This questionnaire is designed to assess your level of optimism as reflected in your hopefulness about the future. There are no right or wrong answers. Please indicate your personal feelings about whether each statement is Mostly False or Mostly True by checking the answer that best describes your attitude or feeling.
Mostly False
Mostly True
1. I nearly always expect a lot from life. ______ ______ 2. I try to anticipate when things will
go wrong. ______ ______ 3. I always see the positive side of
things. ______ ______ 4. I often start out expecting the
worst, although things usually work out okay. ______ ______
5. I expect more good things to happen to me than bad. ______ ______
6. I often feel concern about how things will turn out for me. ______ ______
7. If something can go wrong for me, it usually does. ______ ______
8. Even in difficult times, I usually expect the best. ______ ______
9. I am cheerful and positive most of the time. ______ ______
10. I consider myself an optimistic person. ______ ______
Scoring and Interpretation Give yourself one point for checking Mostly True for items 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10. Also give yourself one point for checking Mostly False for items 2, 4, 6, 7. Enter your score here: ______ If your score is 8 or higher, it may mean that you are high on opti- mism. If your score is 3 or less, your view about the future may be pessimistic. For the most part, people like to follow a leader who is optimistic rather than negative about the future. However, too much optimism may exaggerate positive expectations that are never fulfilled. If your score is low, what can you do to view the world through a more optimistic lens?
Source: These questions were created based on several sources.
IN THE LEAD Marissa Mayer, Yahoo Marissa Mayer set herself some tough goals as the new president and CEO of Yahoo, but being tough is part of Mayerâs DNA. Mayer is known for being incredibly energetic and ambitious. She loves hard work and challenge. ââShe doesnât need any sleep,ââ said Craig Silverstein, who worked with her at Google and now develops software for Kahn Academy.
Drive high motivation that creates a high effort level by a leader
40 NOT FOR SALE
Working 100-hour weeks certainly isnât necessary for effective leadership, but all leaders have to display drive and energy to be successful. Clearly, various traits such as drive, self-confidence, optimism, and honesty have great value for leaders. One study of 600 executives by Hay Group, a global organizational and human resources consulting firm, found that 75 percent of the successful executives studied possessed the characteristics of self-confidence and drive.20
In Chapter 4, we will further consider individual characteristics and qualities that play a role in leadership effectiveness. However, good leaders know it isnât about identifying specific individual traits but rather understanding oneâs own unique set of strengths and capabilities and learning how to make the most of them.21
2-2 KNOW YOUR STRENGTHS Some people tend to think a leader should have a complete set of skills, characteris- tics, and abilities to handle any problem, challenge, or opportunity that comes along. This myth of the ââcomplete leaderââ can cause stress and frustration for lead- ers and followers, as well as damage to the organization.22 Interdependence is the key to effective leadership. Sixty percent of leaders in one survey acknowledge that leaders face challenges that go beyond any individualâs capabilities.23 Therefore, the best leaders recognize and hone their strengths while trusting and collaborating with others to make up for their weak points.
Everyone has strengths, but many leaders fail to recognize and apply them, often because they are hampered by the idea that they should be good at everything. Benjamin Franklin referred to wasted strengths as ââsundials in the shade.ââ24 Only when leaders understand their strengths can they use these abilities effectively to make their best contribution.
2-2a What Are Strengths? A strength arises from a natural talent that has been supported and reinforced with knowledge and skills.25 Talents can be thought of as innate traits and naturally
Thatâs clearly an overstatement, but Mayer has demonstrated that she has almost superhuman stamina and a strong drive to succeed. In the early years at Google, she routinely worked 100-hour weeks and occasionally pulled all-nighters. Soon after joining Yahoo as CEO, Mayer had her first baby and returned to work two weeks after the delivery.
Even in high school, Mayer was known as an overachiever who refused to settle for less than the best from herself or others. As captain of the pom-pom squad, she scheduled practices that lasted for hours to make sure everyone was synchronized. It was during her first management job at Google that she incorporated the idea of pushing beyond her comfort zone into her career philosophy. She isnât afraid to take risks in the interest of helping the team and organization succeed. Mayer created a firestorm of criticism when she issued a policy early in her tenure at Yahoo that employees can no longer work from home, but she stuck by her decision without regrets or apologies. She believes Yahoo is in a crisis situation and to succeed needs the creative energy that comes from people working face to face and side by side. Some people believe she will eventually relax the tough ââall hands in the officeââ policy, since flexibility is another of her characteristics. However, she wonât relax her high standards or the requirement that employees be as dedicated to Yahooâs success as she is.19
Strength a natural talent or ability that has been supported and reinforced with learned knowledge and skills
CHAPTER 2 TRAITS, BEHAVIORS, AND RELATIONSHIPS 41
NOT FOR SALE
recurring patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior. One person might be naturally outgoing and curious, for example; another might have a natural talent for being organized. Once recognized, talents can be turned into strengths by consciously developing and enhancing them with learning and practice. Unless they are honed and strengthened and put to use, talents are merely aspects of oneâs potential.
One neat thing about understanding your strengths is the philosophy ââconcen- trate on your strengths, not your weaknesses.ââ You excel in life by maximizing your strengths, not by fixing your weaknesses. When you live and work from your strengths, you are more motivated, competent, and satisfied. Strengths are important because you can focus your life around them, and your energy, enthusiasm, and effectiveness can be the basis of your leadership. Why devote your energy to trying to fix your weaknesses or expend much thought and effort performing tasks that donât match your strengths? When people use their talents and strengths, they feel good and enjoy their work without extra effort; hence they are effective and make a positive contribution.
How does a leader know which traits or behavior patterns can be turned into strengths? Warren Buffett recommends that people do what fits their natural interests and abilities, which is reflected in the work they like to do. Buffett says he finds inves- ting so much fun that he would do it for free. Buffett tried other work early in his career but found it so unsatisfying that he knew he wouldnât want to do it for any amount of money. The legendary self-made billionaire and chairman of Berkshire Hathaway was the third richest person in the world in 2015. Yet it isnât the money that drives him, but the love of the work. His career advice is to find work or a career that you really enjoy, and it will fit the natural strengths of your mental wiring.26
2-2b Matching Strengths with Roles Recent research suggests that different leader strengths might be better suited to dif- ferent types of leadership roles.27 Exhibit 2.2 illustrates three types of leadership roles identified in todayâs organizations by a team of experts at Hay Group. The researchers found that, although there is a core set of competencies that all leaders need, there is significant variation in the personal characteristics, behaviors, and skills that correlate with success in the different roles.
The operational role is the closest to a traditional, vertically oriented manage- ment role, where an executive has direct control over people and resources to
EXHIBIT 2.2 Three Types of Leadership Roles
Operational Role Collaborative Role Advisory Role
Vertical management positions
Example: Division President Project Manager Human Resources Manager
Horizontal responsibilities
Providing guidance and support
Operational role a vertically oriented leader- ship role in which an execu- tive has direct control over people and resources and the position power to ac- complish results
42 PART 2 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP
NOT FOR SALE
accomplish results. Operational leaders fill traditional line and general management positions in a business, for example. They set goals, establish plans, and get things done primarily through the vertical hierarchy and the use of position power. Opera- tional leaders are doggedly focused on delivering results. They need high self- confidence and tend to be assertive, always pushing forward and raising the bar. Successful operational leaders are typically analytical and knowledgeable, yet they also have the ability to translate their knowledge into a vision that others can become passionate about.
The collaborative role is a horizontal role and includes people such as project managers, matrix managers, and team leaders in todayâs more horizontally organ- ized companies. This role, which has grown tremendously in importance in recent years, is quite challenging. Leaders in collaborative roles typically donât have the strong position power of the operational role. They often work behind the scenes, using their personal power to influence others and get things done. Collaborative leaders need excellent people skills in order to network, build relationships, and obtain agreement through personal influence. They also are highly proactive and te- nacious, and they exhibit extreme flexibility to cope with the ambiguity and uncer- tainty associated with the collaborative role.
Leaders in an advisory role provide guidance and support to other people and departments in the organization. Advisory leadership roles are found, for example, in departments such as legal, finance, and human resources. These leaders are responsible for developing broad organizational capabilities rather than accomplish- ing specific business results. Advisory leaders need great people skills and the ability to influence others through communication, knowledge, and personal persuasion. In addition, leaders in advisory roles need exceptionally high levels of honesty and in- tegrity to build trust and keep the organization on solid ethical ground.
The Hay Group research findings shed new light on the types of roles leaders fill in todayâs organizations and emphasize that an individualâs strengths can influence how effective a leader might be in a particular role. Leadership success partly depends on matching leaders with roles where their strengths can be most effective.
2-3 BEHAVIOR APPROACHES As suggested in the previous discussion, strengths are not just personal traits but also patterns of behavior. Rather than looking at an individualâs personal traits, diverse research programs on leadership behavior have sought to uncover the behav- iors that effective leaders engage in. Behaviors can be learned more readily than traits, enabling leadership to be accessible to all.
2-3a Autocratic versus Democratic Behaviors One study that served as a precursor to the behavior approach recognized autocratic and democratic leadership styles. An autocratic leader is one who tends to centralize authority and derive power from position, control of rewards, and coercion. A democratic leader delegates authority to others, encourages participation, relies on subordinatesâ knowledge for completion of tasks, and depends on subordinate respect for influence.
The first studies on these leadership behaviors were conducted at the University of Iowa by Kurt Lewin and his associates.28 The research included groups of chil- dren, each with its own designated adult leader who was instructed to act in either
NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO As a leader, you can understand the type of leadership role in which your strengths would be most effective and satisfying. You can pursue an operational, collaborative, or advisory leadership role depending on your natural tendencies.
Collaborative role a horizontal leadership role (such as team leader) in which the leader often works behind the scenes and uses personal power to influence others and get things done.
Advisory role a leadership role that pro- vides advice, guidance, and support to other people and departments in the organi- zation
Autocratic a leader who tends to cen- tralize authority and derive power from position, control of rewards, and coercion
Democratic a leader who delegates authority to others, encour- ages participation, relies on subordinatesâ knowledge for completion of tasks, and depends on subordinate respect for influence
CHAPTER 2 TRAITS, BEHAVIORS, AND RELATIONSHIPS 43
NOT FOR SALE
an autocratic or a democratic style. These experiments produced some interesting findings. The groups with autocratic leaders performed highly so long as the leader was present to supervise them. However, group members were displeased with the close, autocratic style of leadership, and feelings of hostility frequently arose. The performance of groups who were assigned democratic leaders was almost as good, and these groups were characterized by positive feelings rather than hostility. In addition, under the democratic style of leadership, group members performed well even when the leader was absent. The participative techniques and majority-rule de- cision making used by the democratic leader trained and involved the group mem- bers so that they performed well with or without the leader present. These characteristics of democratic leadership may partly explain why the empowerment of employees is a popular trend in companies today. This chapterâs Consider This box presents the notion that democratic leaders may get better results because they allow followers to feel their own power and worth.
This early work implied that leaders were either autocratic or democratic in their approach. However, further work by Tannenbaum and Schmidt indicated that leadership behavior could exist on a continuum reflecting different amounts of em- ployee participation.29 Thus, one leader might be autocratic (boss-centered), another democratic (subordinate-centered), and a third a mix of the two styles. Exhibit 2.3 illustrates the leadership continuum.
Tannenbaum and Schmidt also suggested that the extent to which leaders should be boss-centered or subordinate-centered depended on organizational circumstances and that leaders might adjust their behaviors to fit the circumstances. For example, if there is time pressure on a leader, or if it takes too long for subordinates to learn how to make decisions, the leader will tend to use an autocratic style. When subordinates are able to learn decision-making skills readily, a democratic style can be used. Also, the greater the skill difference, the more autocratic the leader approach because it is difficult to bring subordinates up to the leaderâs expertise level.30
ConsiderThis! Minimal Leadership
When the Master governs, the people are hardly aware that he [she] exists.
Next best is a leader who is loved.
Next, one who is feared.
The worst is one who is despised.
If you donât trust the people, you make them untrustworthy.
The Master doesnât talk, he [she] acts.
When his [her] work is done, the people say, ââAmazing: we did it all by ourselves.ââ
Source: From Tao Te Ching, translated by S. Mitchell, (New York: Harper Perennial, 1988), p. 17.
NEW LEADER ACTION MEMO As a leader, you can use a democratic leadership style to help followers develop decision-making skills and perform well without close supervision. An autocratic style might be appropriate when there is time pressure or followers have low skill levels.
44 PART 2 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP
NOT FOR SALE
Jack Hartnett, former president of D. L. Rogers Corporation and franchise owner of 54 Sonic drive-in restaurants, provides an example of the autocratic lead- ership style. He tells workers to ââdo it the way we tell you to do it,ââ rather than ask- ing for their input or suggestions.31 The style works well in the fast-food restaurant business where turnover is typically high and many employees are young and low skilled. In contrast, Warren Buffett, introduced earlier, is an excellent example of a democratic leader.
EXHIBIT 2.3 Leadership Continuum
Subordinate-Centered Leadership
Boss-Centered Leadership
Manager makes decision and announces it
Manager âsellsâ decision
