How To Read And Interpret Public Health Data: Graphs And Tables

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Read the following sections of the CDC Online Epidemiology Manual:

Lesson 3: Measures of Risk: https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson3/index.html (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Section 1: Frequency Measures:

Section 5: Measures of Association

Read Lesson 4 in the CDC Online Epidemiology Manual:

https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson4/index.html (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Section 2: Tables

Section 3: Graphs

Section 4: Other Data Displays

Epidemiology Assignment 5 – Module 6.docxPreview the document

The main goal of this week’s Epidemiology project is to help you become familiar with how Public Health data is analyzed, displayed, and interpreted. Chapter 6 of the textbook is filled with graphs and charts to express the findings of many epidemiology studies. This worksheet is designed to help you become comfortable with the many different concepts that epidemiologists deal with on a daily basis. If you want to play around with this a little more, I’ve included a couple of optional extra credit graphs for you to make yourself on Excel.

Epidemiology Assignment 5

 

Read the following sections of the CDC Online Epidemiology Manual:

Lesson 3: Measures of Risk: https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson3/index.html

(Links to an external site.)

Links to an external site.

 

Section 1: Frequency Measures:

 

Section 5: Measures of Association

Read Lesson 4 in the CDC Online Epidemiology Manual:

https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson4/index.html

(Links to an external site.)

Links to an external site.

Section 2: Tables

 

Section 3: Graphs

 

Section 4: Other Data Displays

The main goal of this week’s Epidemiology project is to help you become familiar with how Public Health data is analyzed, displayed, and interpreted. Chapter 6 of the textbook is filled with graphs and charts to express the findings of many epidemiology studies. This worksheet is designed to help you become comfortable with the many different concepts that epidemiologists deal with on a daily basis. If you want to play around with this a little more, I’ve included a couple of optional extra credit graphs for you to make yourself on Excel. Have fun!

Worksheet: Epidemiology Module 10: Reading and Interpreting Graphs and Charts

 

The main goal of the Epidemiology studies for the past few weeks has been to help you become familiar with how Public Health data is analyzed and displayed. Most readers only have time to size up the data quickly. They are looking for a snapshot of the data that will allow them to make a quick assessment of what is going on. It is for this reason that data is displayed in the form of graphs, tables, figures, etc. Actually, no one, not even the professional, really knows the answers to the critical questions when first looking at the numerical measurements (raw data). It’s usually not possible to know much, without first condensing it into a snapshot.

 

 

There is no single formula for displaying data. When the data is first being collected, it will be entered into a preliminary database, known as a line listing. This could be in the form of an Excel file for smaller data sets, or a larger type of data file that would be analyzed by more powerful software. This is reviewed in the CDC Manual in Lesson 4, Section 1.

 

“To analyze data effectively, an epidemiologist must become familiar with the data before applying analytic techniques. The epidemiologist may begin by examining individual records such as those contained in a line listing. This review will be followed by production of a table to summarize the data. Sometimes, the resulting tables are the only analysis that is needed, particularly when the amount of data is small and relationships are straightforward.”

 

Usually epidemiologists will take a preliminary look at the numbers to see what trends are standing out. By trends, we mean associations, correlations, etc. Which of these are important? Which are not.? Is a correlation an indication of a causal relationship? Is it merely a coincidence? Or, does it suggest the involvement of a third factor that links the first two? Where does the professional begin?

 

“When the data are more complex, graphs and charts can help the epidemiologist visualize broader patterns and trends and identify variations from those trends. Variations in data may represent important new findings or only errors in typing or coding which need to be corrected. Thus, tables and graphs can be helpful tools to aid in verifying and analyzing the data.”

 

If you take a look at an Excel program, you will notice that under the heading of charts you will see more than a dozen types of charts available. If you have an excel program available, and you know how to plot data, you can type some data into to a worksheet page to recreate one of the data sets shown in the CDC Manual. For example, type the data in from Table 4.1a Reported Cases of Primary and Secondary Syphilis by Age — United States, 2002, just as it is displayed.You will have two columns. You can make a bar graph. Designate the age brackets to be along the x-axis, and the frequency, or number of cases, along the as the y-axis. Practice adding labels to the data.

 

If you want to try something more complex, you can add some variables to your table. Type the gender data from Table 4.2 Reported Cases of Primary and Secondary Syphilis by Age and Sex — United States, 2002 into your worksheet, and add those to your bar graph. You will get a bar graph similar to the graphs in Figure 6-1 on p.108 of your textbook.

 

NOTE: This is not a required exercise, but you will receive extra credit if you do it (20 points for each graph). You should email this to me as a separate file, and explain what you did, so I’ll be sure to give you credit for it.

 

Assignment Worksheet:

 

For your assignment, review the following sections: (please change the text in your answers to a different color or highlight with yellow).

 

Lesson 3: Measures of Risk: https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson3/index.html

 

Section 1: Frequency Measures:

Section 5: Measures of Association

 

Lesson 4: Displaying Public Health Data

Section 2: Tables

Section 3: Graphs

Section 4: Other Data Displays

 

Question 1: Now, as you look through Chapter 6 in the textbook, you will recognize many of these types of charts, graphs or tables that were described in the CDC Manual. Let’s look at a few of them in more detail.

 

In Figure 6-1. These two graphs are similar in that these are both both bar graphs with two variables being compared. They are both comparing frequencies during the individual years between 1978-2010.

 

1. Explain how are these two graphs are different.

 

 

 

 

Questions 2-7: In Figure 6-4 these figures are comparing Risk Groups of AIDS patients from two different years. Answer these questions;

 

Look in Lesson 3: Measures of Risk

Section 1: Frequency Measures

 

2. Which of the following parameters is being compared in this graph? Highlight your answer.

a. Ratio

b. Proportion

c. Incidence Rate

 

 

3. Explain what the term “Cumulative” means in this analysis.

 

4. In comparing the data from 1986 to 2010, name 4 major changes that occurred in frequency among the different Risk groups.

 

 

5. Explain why the Blood Transfusion and Hemophiliac patient group appear to disappear?

 

 

6. Why does the frequency in the Homosexual group go down so dramatically? Are there fewer homosexual patients in 2010 than there were in 1986?

 

7. Why did the percentage of Heterosexual patients increase between 1986 and 2010?

 

 

Questions 8-9: When we see tables and graphs, we are often too quick to jump to conclusions about what they are trying to tell us. Read the Section in the textbook on 110-111, Epidemiology and Modes of HIV Transmission and Anal Sex – A High-Rsik Mode. Now look at Table 6-2.

Let’s see if you can figure out what this Table is telling you. The frequencies (percent HIV Seropositive) do not add up to 100%. They would have, if they had been comparing the Proportion of patients who had converted to Seropositive as the result of the different types of sexual activities. By reading the text carefully, you can figure out what these percentages are actually referring to.

 

 

8. What are the percentages in Table 6-2 referring to? Percent of what?

 

 

 

9. Explain the main finding of Table 6-2.

 

 

 

Question 10: Sometimes we see charts that we are not familiar with. We don’t know what to think! What do most people do when confronted with a chart they don’t understand? They skip over it! Figure 6-7 is an example of this. Actually, the finding of of this chart is dramatic. It would be a shame to miss out on it because you didn’t know how to read it.

 

You will find an explanation of this type of chart, also known as a pyramid chart in Lesson 4, Section 3 (scroll down to Figure 4.10 Population Distribution of Zambia by Age and Sex, 2000). Read that section, then use it to interpret the pyramid chart in Figure 6-7, on p. 119 of the textbook.

 

The goal of this graph is to examine how the age distribution of the population of Lesotho, a country in southern Africa, has changed over time as a result of the AIDS epidemic. For the graphs in this figure, they are looking at a the Proportion of the population in each age group.

Each bar represents what percentage of the population was in each age group during the year that they are plotting (age 0-5; 6-10; etc). The total should add up to 100%. Note: This is a Proportion that they are looking at (see Lesson 3, section 1).

 

10. Explain why the overall shape of the pyramid changed between 1950 and 2007. What is the main finding of this pair of charts?

 
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A tissue is composed of

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1. A tissue is composed of

 

a- cells.

b- organs.

c- organ systems.

d- cells and organs.

e- cells and organ systems.

 

2. A group of cells performing a similar function is described as

 

a- multicellular.

b- an organism.

c- an organ system.

d- an organ.

e- Tissue.

 

3. Somatic stem cells are found in

 

a- adult tissues.

b- embryonic tissues.

c- umbilical-cord blood.

d- germ tissue.

e- All of the above.

 

4. A group of tissues working together perform the complex functions of

 

a- a tissue.

b- an organ.

c- an organ system.

d- an organism.

e- a bladder.

 

5. Organs are composed of

 

a- one type of cell.

b- one type of tissue.

c- at least two tissues.

d- more than three cell types.

e- None of the above.

 

6. An organ is composed of

 

a- three cell types.

b- at least two specialized tissues.

c- at least 10 specialized cell types.

d- one or more tissue types.

e- groups of cells randomly arranged around a scaffold.

 

 

 

 

7. The bladder is composed of multiple tissues. This organization is beneficial because

 

a- each specialized cell type provides function to the organ.

b- one tissue type would not be functional.

c- having more then one tissue present makes stem-cell harvesting easier.

d- All of the above.

e- None of the above.

 

 

8. The formation of an organ through the use of stem cells differentiated into multiple cell types. However, which of the following presents a hurdle to regenerating a new organ to replace a defective one?

 

a- Many organs contain multiple specialized cell types in an intricate design.

b- Nerve innervation is necessary for the proper function of some organs.

c- Proper blood supply to all the regenerated cells is necessary for the survival of organs.

d- A and C

e- All of the above.

 

9. Which of the following best explains why the rock chimneys of the Lost City host such a variety of unique microbial communities?

 

a- The height of the chimneys creates a gradient of temperatures (hottest at the top and coolest at the bottom) along the chimney; these, in turn, become separate environments and host different communities.

 

b- The height of the chimneys creates a gradient of pH (most acidic at the top and most basic at the bottom) along the chimney; these, in turn, become separate environments and host different communities.

 

c- Although temperatures, pH, and other factors are the same all over each chimney, the chimneys are so big that different communities can occupy different sections of the chimney.

 

d- The Lost City comprises a huge number of rock chimneys, each of which has its own unique environment; this means that each chimney hosts its own unique microbial community.

 

e- None of the above.

 

 

10. Which of the following does NOT refer to a prokaryotic organism?

 

a- smaller than a eukaryotic organism

b- does not have a nucleus

c- has one chromosome

d- reproduces by binary fission

e- has organelles

 

 

 

 

 

 

11. A prokaryote has all of the following structures, EXCEPT

 

a- a cell wall.

b- ribosomes.

c- mitochondria.

d- DNA.

e- Cytoplasm.

 

 

12. Which statement about prokaryotes is FALSE?

 

a- Prokaryotes are diverse.

b- All prokaryotes are bacteria.

c- Prokaryotes are usually single celled.

d- Prokaryotes are found in two domains.

e- Prokaryotes cannot be seen by the naked eye.

 

 

 

 

 

13. The term “extremophiles” refers to

 

a- members of domain Bacteria

b- members of domain Archaea

c- members of domain Eukarya

d- members of both domains Bacteria and Archaea

e- members of both domains Archaea and Eukarya

 

 

14. Bacteria that eat other bacteria are called , while photosynthetic bacteria are called .

 

a- autotrophs; heterotrophs

b- autotrophs; nitrogen fixers

c- autotrophs; phototrophs

d- heterotrophs; autotrophs

e- heterotrophs; phototrophs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

15. Which does NOT describe members of the domain Archaea?

 

a- They are genetically close to eukaryotes.

b- Some live in extreme environments.

c- They are prokaryotes.

d- They do not have a nucleus.

e- Their cell walls made of peptidoglycan.

 

 

 

16. Which member of the domain Archaea would likely be found in the digestive system of cows?

 

a- Halobacterium

b- Sulpholobus

c- Methanobrevibacter

d- Pyrodicticum

e- Thermoproteus

 

 

17. One of the most ancient forms of metabolism on Earth is _________.

 

a- glucogenesis

b- lipogenesis

c- oxygenesis

d- methanogenesis

e- carbonogenesis

 

18. Which eukaryote evolved first?

 

a- plants

b- fungi

c- protists

d- humans

e- sponges

 

 

19. The tree of life has been rearranged into three domains based on what evidence?

 

a- comparative anatomy

b- DNA similarities

c- homologous structures

d- anatomical evidence

e- fossil evidence

 

 

 

 

 

 

20. The domain Eukarya includes

 

a- plants.

b- plants and animals.

c- plants, animals, and fungi.

d- plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

e- plants, animals, fungi, protists, and archaea.

 

 

 

 

 

21. Which topographical feature affects the climate of an area?

 

a- mountain range

b- plateau

c- coastal location

d- forests

e- volcanoes

 

 

22. The diversity of organisms found in an area is directly related to

 

a- the diversity of temperature.

b- the diversity of elevation.

c- the diversity of rainfall.

d- the diversity of the physical terrain.

e- All of the above.

 

 

23. Which describes plant groups in order of terrestrial adaptations from earliest to the most recent?

 

a- ferns, bryophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms

b- bryophytes, gymnosperms, ferns, and angiosperms

c- angiosperms, bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms

d- ferns, gymnosperms, bryophytes, and angiosperms

e- bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms

 

 

24. Which is the correct evolutionary order of plants, from earliest to most recent, exhibiting the acquisition of terrestrial adaptations?

 

a- sword fern, moss, maple, and pine

b- sword fern, moss, pine, and maple

c- moss, sword fern, pine, and maple

d- moss, sword fern, maple, and pine

e-maple, pine, sword fern, and moss

 

 

25. The sunny, south-facing slopes of the Olympic Mountains are relatively dry. In the forests there, you would expect to find

 

a- relatively few bryophytes, but numerous ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

b- fewer bryophytes and ferns than gymnosperms and angiosperms.

c- fewer ferns than bryophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

d- fewer gymnosperms than bryophytes, ferns, and angiosperms.

e- fewer angiosperms than bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms.

 
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BIO – Chapter 9 Calculating Ecological Footprints

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Calculating Ecological Footprints- Chapter 9

 

 

 

Population (millions) Total paper consumed

(millions of metric tons)

 Per capita paper consumed

(pounds)
Africa 999 6 13
Asia 4,117 159
Europe 738 99
Latin America 580 27
North America 341 77
Oceania 36 4
World 6,810 127

 

 

 

 

 

1. How much paper would North Americans save each year if we consumed paper at the rate of Europeans?

 

2. How much paper would be consumed if everyone in the world used as much paper as the average European? As the average North American?

 

3. Why do you think people in other regions consume less paper, per capita, than North Americans? Name three things you could do to reduce your paper consumption.

 

4. Describe three ways in which consuming FSC-certified paper rather than conventional paper can reduce the environmental impacts of paper consumption

 
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Skeletal System

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  Experiment 11: Skeletal System of the Fetal Pig

In this exercise you will become familiar with the skeletal system of the fetal pig. Because the fetal pig had not reached its full gestation, many of the bones have not fully developed, but are instead still cartilaginous. Still, we can look at this structures to gain a better understanding of the axial and appendicular skeletons, along with the joints.

 
  Materials

Fetal Pig Dissection Tray

 Dissection Tools Kit String (should still be tied onto pig’s hooves)  
       

Procedure

1. To begin, lay your underpad down and place your dissecting tray on top of it. Lay out your dissecting tools. Be sure you have all of your safety equipment on before beginning the experiment.

2. Once prepared, gently open the bag your pig is in. Note: DO NOT destroy this bag or empty out the preserving solution within the bag, you will need it for the whole semester.

3. Lay your pig into the dissecting tray, dorsal side facing up. Slide the strings over the dissection tray to hold the pig in place.

4. Look at Figure 21 displaying the skeletal system of a grown pig. Notice the similarities and differences between that of your human skeleton and that of the pig.

5.
Figure 21:  The pig skeleton

6. Due to the rigidity of your pig, it typically will not stay in this position on its own so you will need to hold it while you examine the skeletal system.

7. Begin by examining, through the skin, the axial skeleton as shown in Figure 21. Feel the bones of the skull, then continue down the vertebral column feeling the vertebrae along the way. Notice that the tail of the pig is composed of caudal vertebrae. Note your observations in Table 34.

8. Slide the strings off of the dissection tray and gently turn your pig ventral side up. Slide the strings back under the dissection tray after the pig is correctly positioned.

9. Feel the thoracic cage of the pig. Though you will not cut into the pig today, feel the similarities that occur between the fetal pig and the human skeleton model. Note your observations in Table 34.

10. Turn your attention to the appendicular skeleton. The pig’s four appendages correlate to the human arms and legs. Use Figure 21 as a guide to try and feel the different bones of the arms and legs (humerus, femur, tibia, etc.). Note your observations in Table 34.

11. In Figure 21, look at the pelvic girdle of the pig. This structure appears noticeably different than that of a human. However, the innominate bones of the pig are created by the ilium, ischium and pubis.

12. Focus your attention on the joints of the pig. The pig should be fairly rigid due to the preservation fluids. However, you should still attempt to produce the movements created by synovial joints on the pig (e.g., flexion, rotation, etc.). Notice the joints at which these movements are possible. Do they correlate to human movement? Note your observations in Table 34.

13. Take a photograph of your pig in the dissection tray for the upload document. Make sure that your name is written on a piece of paper that is clearly visible in the background of the photograph.

14. You are now finished with the external observations of the skeletal system. Remember that as you dissect into your pig, you will be able to touch and feel the bones of the skeletal system. As the dissection progresses, always take note of the bones present within the fetal pig.

15. To finish, locate the bag the pig came in. Gently place the pig back into the bag and tightly secure the bag with a rubber band, or place in the zip-seal bag provided in the dissection box.

16. Place the pig back into the cool environment you had previously stored it in. Remember, the best place to keep the pig is in a cool, dark place.

17. After your pig has been put away, clean off your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and water. There should not be any biological scraps because you did not cut into the pig. However, biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.

18. Clean the area in which you worked with soap and water as well. As long as the underpad has not been damaged, keep it for future experiments.

 
Figure 22:  Palpate the skeleton of the fetal pig using gloved hands.

 

Table 34: Skeletal Region Observations
Skeletal Region Observations
Axial Skeleton  
Appendicular Skeleton  
Joints  

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

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