Business Ethics Paper
Choose one case from among the cases at the end of chapters 3, 4, 5, 7 or 10.  (This means you will be writing on only one case for your paper).  DO NOT use any of the cases at the end chapters 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, or 11.
 Content:Â
Provide a brief (1 to 2 paragraph) summary of the case (including details you think are relevant â leave out extraneous details).
Outline what you think the major ethical conflict in the case is. In other words, what do you think is the single, most important ethical conflict?  When trying to understand the thinking of those who have resolved the issue, speculate on which ethical theory seems to best fit with their choices.
Describe how you would resolve the issue you have outlined (i.e.: what would your judgment be).Explain what ethical standard(s) or principle(s) you are using to come to this conclusion.  In almost all cases, a principle comes from, or can be connected to, a larger ethical theory (we studied these at the beginning of the course).
Explore which theory is best connected to your principle (such as utilitarianism, ethics of duty, etc., etc.,).  Only one, please.
Include one or two paragraphs on how the theory and/or principles you are using might have an effect on how you approach your work in the future.
Outside research is not necessary. HOWEVER, any outside research you might do on the case and/or the ethical theories will probably make a better paper (and will likely lead to a better grade). If you do any outside research, it has to be cited (no plagiarism), footnoted, and a list of work(s) cited needs to be included.
Format:
Include a separate cover page.
The paper, itself, is to be between 3 and 5 pages (no more, no less). This does not include the cover (or any additional material such as âWorks Citedâ).
If your only source for this paper is your textbook, DO NOT list it as the sole entry in a âWorks Citedâ page.
Itâs to be double-spaced and have reasonable margins.  (Multiple, serious deviations from these basic formatting rules could lower your grade by a significant amount)
Bus iness eth ics
8t h e di t ion
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Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Will iam H. Shaw San Jose State Univers i ty
Bus iness eth ics
8t h e di t ion
Australia ⢠Brazil ⢠Japan ⢠Korea ⢠Mexico ⢠Singapore ⢠Spain ⢠United Kingdom ⢠United States
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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12
Business Ethics, Eighth Edition William H. Shaw
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ISBN-13: 978-1-133-94307-5
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v
Prefaceâ ix
pa rt one | mor a l philosoph y a nd busine ss 1
cha pter 1 the nature of Mor al it y 1 Ethicsâ 3 Moralâ versusâNonmoralâ Standardsâ 5 Religionâ andâMoralityâ 10 Ethicalâ Relativismâ 13 HavingâMoralâ Principlesâ 15 Moralityâ andâPersonalâValuesâ 19 Individualâ Integrityâ andâResponsibilityâ 20 Moralâ Reasoningâ 24 StudyâCornerâ 30 Caseâ1.1:âMadeâ inâ theâU.S.A.âDumpedâ inâ Brazil,âAfrica,â Iraqâ .â .â .â 31 Caseâ1.2:â JustâDropâoffâ theâ Key,â Leeâ 34 Caseâ1.3:âTheâA7DâAffairâ 37
cha pter 2 norMat iv e theor ies of e th ics 4 0 Consequentialistâ andâNonconsequentialistâTheoriesâ 42 Egoismâ 43 Utilitarianismâ 46 Kantâsâ Ethicsâ 53 otherâNonconsequentialistâ Perspectivesâ 59 Utilitarianismâonceâ Moreâ 66 MoralâDecisionâMaking:âAâ PracticalâApproachâ 68 StudyâCornerâ 70 Caseâ2.1:â Hackingâ intoâ Harvardâ 71 Caseâ2.2:âTheâ Fordâ Pintoâ 74 Caseâ2.3:â Bloodâ forâ Saleâ 77
cha pter 3 Just ice and econoMic d istr iBut ion 80 TheâNatureâ ofâ Justiceâ 83 TheâUtilitarianâViewâ 86 Theâ LibertarianâApproachâ 90 RawlsâsâTheoryâ ofâ Justiceâ 97
contents
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vi CONTENTS
StudyâCornerâ 106 Caseâ3.1:â EminentâDomainâ 107 Caseâ3.2:â Battlingâ overâ BottledâWaterâ 109 Caseâ3.3:â Povertyâ inâAmericaâ 111
pa rt t wo | a mer ic a n busine ss a nd its basis 114
cha pter 4 the nature of ca p ital isM 114 Capitalismâ 116 Keyâ Featuresâ ofâ Capitalismâ 119 TwoâArgumentsâ forâ Capitalismâ 121 Criticismsâ ofâ Capitalismâ 125 Todayâsâ EconomicâChallengesâ 133 StudyâCornerâ 139 Caseâ4.1:â Huckstersâ inâ theâ Classroomâ 140 Caseâ4.2:â Licensingâ andâ Laissezâ Faireâ 142 Caseâ4.3:âoneâNationâ underâWalmartâ 144 Caseâ4.4:âAâNewâWorkâ Ethic?â 147 Caseâ4.5:â Casinoâ Gamblingâ onâWallâ Streetâ 148
cha pter 5 corpor at ions 150 Theâ Limited-Liabilityâ Companyâ 152 CorporateâMoralâAgencyâ 154 RivalâViewsâ ofâ Corporateâ Responsibilityâ 158 Debatingâ CorporateâResponsibilityâ 164 Institutionalizingâ Ethicsâwithinâ Corporationsâ 169 StudyâCornerâ 176 Caseâ5.1:âYahoo!â inâChinaâ 177 Caseâ5.2:âDrugâDilemmasâ 179 Caseâ5.3:â Leviâ Straussâ atâ Homeâ andâAbroadâ 182 Caseâ5.4:â Freeâ Speechâ orâ FalseâAdvertising?â 186 Caseâ5.5:â Charityâ toâ Scouts?â 188
pa rt thr ee | busine ss a nd societ y 191
cha pter 6 consuMers 191 Productâ Safetyâ 193 otherâAreasâ ofâ BusinessâResponsibilityâ 205 Deceptionâ andâUnfairnessâ inâAdvertisingâ 214 TheâDebateâ overâAdvertisingâ 224
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CONTENTSâ â â vii
StudyâCornerâ 227 Caseâ6.1:â Breastâ Implantsâ 229 Caseâ6.2:â HotâCoffeeâ atâMcDonaldâsâ 231 Caseâ6.3:â SniffingâGlueâCouldâ Snuffâ Profitsâ 232 Caseâ6.4:â Closingâ theâDealâ 234 Caseâ6.5:âTheâRiseâ andâ Fallâ ofâ Fourâ Lokoâ 236
cha pter 7 the en v ironMent 239 Businessâ andâ Ecologyâ 242 Theâ Ethicsâ ofâ Environmentalâ Protectionâ 246 Achievingâourâ EnvironmentalâGoalsâ 251 Delvingâ Deeperâ intoâ Environmentalâ Ethicsâ 256 StudyâCornerâ 264 Caseâ7.1:â HazardousâHomesâ inâHerculaneumâ 265 Caseâ7.2:â Povertyâ andâPollutionâ 267 Caseâ7.3:âTheâ Fordasaurusâ 269 Caseâ7.4:âTheâ Fightâ overâ theâRedwoodsâ 270 Caseâ7.5:â Palmâoilâ andâ Itsâ Problemsâ 273
pa rt Four | the orG a niZ ation a nd the people in it 276
cha pter 8 the Work pl ace (1) : Bas ic issues 276 Civilâ Libertiesâ inâ theâWorkplaceâ 277 Hiringâ 283 Promotionsâ 289 Disciplineâ andâDischargeâ 291 Wagesâ 295 Laborâ Unionsâ 298 StudyâCornerâ 307 Caseâ8.1:âAIDSâ inâ theâWorkplaceâ 308 Caseâ8.2:âWebâPornâ atâWorkâ 310 Caseâ8.3:â Speakingâoutâ aboutâMaltâ 311 Caseâ8.4:â Haveâ Gun,âWillâTravelâ .â .â .â toâWorkâ 312 Caseâ8.5:â UnionâDiscriminationâ 314
cha pter 9 the Work pl ace ( 2 ) : todayâs challenges 316 organizationalâ Influenceâ inâ Privateâ Livesâ 317 Testingâ andâMonitoringâ 323 WorkingâConditionsâ 329
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viii CONTENTS
RedesigningâWorkâ 337 StudyâCornerâ 341 Caseâ9.1:â Unprofessionalâ Conduct?â 342 Caseâ9.2:âTestingâ forâ Honestyâ 344 Caseâ9.3:â SheâSnoopsâ toâConquerâ 346 Caseâ9.4:â Protectingâ theâUnbornâ atâWorkâ 348 Caseâ9.5:â Swedishâ Daddiesâ 351
cha pter 10 Mor al choices fac ing eMpl oy ees 353 obligationsâ toâ theâ Firmâ 354 Abuseâ ofâofficialâ Positionâ 358 Bribesâ andâKickbacksâ 364 Giftsâ andâ Entertainmentâ 368 Conflictingâobligationsâ 370 Whistle-Blowingâ 372 Self-Interestâ andâ Moralâobligationâ 377 StudyâCornerâ 381 Caseâ10.1:âChangingâ Jobsâ andâ Changingâ Loyaltiesâ 382 Caseâ10.2:âConflictingâ Perspectivesâ onâConflictsâ ofâ Interestâ 383 Caseâ10.3:â InsideâTradersâ orâAstuteâ observers?â 384 Caseâ10.4:âTheâHousingâAllowanceâ 386 Caseâ10.5:â EthicallyâDubiousâConductâ 388
cha pter 11 JoB d iscr iMinat ion 390 TheâMeaningâ ofâ JobâDiscriminationâ 393 Evidenceâ ofâDiscriminationâ 394 AffirmativeâAction:âTheâ Legalâ Contextâ 399 AffirmativeâAction:âTheâMoralâ Issuesâ 404 ComparableâWorthâ 408 Sexualâ Harassmentâ 410 StudyâCornerâ 414 Caseâ11.1:âMinorityâ Set-Asidesâ 415 Caseâ11.2:âHoopâDreamsâ 417 Caseâ11.3:â Raisingâ theâAnteâ 419 Caseâ11.4:âConsentingâ toâ Sexualâ Harassmentâ 420 Caseâ11.5:â Facialâ Discriminationâ 423
SuggeStionSâforâfurtherâreadingâ 425
noteSâ 429
indexâ 449
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ix
Itâ isâdifficultâ toâ imagineâanâareaâofâstudyâthatâhasâgreaterâ importanceâtoâsocietyâorâgreaterârelevanceâtoâ studentsâthanâbusinessâethics.âAsâthisâtextâentersâitsâeighthâedition,âbusinessâethicsâhasâbecomeâaâwell- establishedâacademicâ subject.âMostâ collegesâandâuniversitiesâ offerâ coursesâ inâ it,â andâ scholarlyâ interestâ continuesâtoâgrow.
Yetâsomeâpeopleâstillâscoffâatâtheâideaâofâbusinessâethics,âjestingâthatâtheâveryâconceptâisâanâoxymoron.â Toâbeâsure,ârecentâyearsâhaveâseenâtheânewspapersâfilledâwithâluridâstoriesâofâcorporateâmisconductâandâ feloniousâbehaviorâbyâindividualâbusinesspeople,âandâmanyâsuspectâthatâwhatâtheâmediaâreportârepresentsâ onlyâtheâproverbialâtipâofâtheâiceberg.âHowever,âtheseâscandalsâshouldâpromptâaâreflectiveâpersonânotâtoâ makeâfunâofâbusinessâethicsâbutâratherâtoâthinkâmoreâdeeplyâaboutâtheânatureâandâpurposeâofâbusinessâinâ ourâsocietyâandâaboutâtheâethicalâchoicesâindividualsâmustâinevitablyâmakeâinâtheirâbusinessâandâprofes- sionalâlives.
Businessâ ethicsâ hasâ anâ interdisciplinaryâ character.â Questionsâ ofâ economicâ policyâ andâ businessâ practiceâ intertwineâwithâ issuesâinâpolitics,âsociology,âandâorganizationalâtheory.âAlthoughâbusinessâethicsâ remainsâanchoredâinâphilosophy,âevenâhereâabstractâquestionsâinânormativeâethicsâandâpoliticalâphilosophyâ mingleâwithâanalysisâofâpracticalâproblemsâandâconcreteâmoralâdilemmas.âFurthermore,âbusinessâethicsâisâ notâjustâanâacademicâstudyâbutâalsoâanâinvitationâtoâreflectâonâourâownâvaluesâandâonâourâownâresponsesâtoâ theâhardâmoralâchoicesâthatâtheâworldâofâbusinessâcanâpose.
⢠⢠â˘
goal s, org ani z at ion, and topics Business Ethicsâ hasâ fourâgoals:â toâexposeâstudentsâ toâ theâ importantâmoralâ issuesâ thatâ ariseâ inâ variousâ businessâcontexts;âtoâprovideâstudentsâwithâanâunderstandingâofâtheâmoral,âsocial,âandâeconomicâenviron- mentsâwithinâwhichâthoseâproblemsâoccur;âtoâintroduceâstudentsâtoâtheâethicalâandâotherâconceptsâthatâareâ relevantâforâresolvingâthoseâproblems;âandâtoâassistâstudentsâinâdevelopingâtheânecessaryâreasoningâandâ analyticalâskillsâforâdoingâso.âAlthoughâtheâbookâsâprimaryâemphasisâisâonâbusiness,âitsâscopeâextendsâtoâ relatedâmoralâissuesâinâotherâorganizationalâandâprofessionalâcontexts.
Theâbookâhasâfourâparts.âPartâone,ââMoralâPhilosophyâandâBusiness,ââdiscussesâtheânatureâofâmoralityâ andâpresentsâtheâmainâtheoriesâofânormativeâethicsâandâtheâleadingâapproachesâtoâquestionsâofâeconomicâ justice.âPartâTwo,ââAmericanâBusinessâandâItsâBasis,ââexaminesâtheâinstitutionalâfoundationsâofâbusiness,â focusingâonâcapitalismâasâanâeconomicâsystemâandâtheânatureâandâroleâofâcorporationsâinâourâsociety.âPartâ Three,ââBusinessâandâSociety,ââconcernsâmoralâproblemsâinvolvingâbusiness,âconsumers,âandâtheânaturalâ environment.âPartâFour,ââTheâorganizationâandâtheâPeopleâinâIt,ââidentifiesâaâvarietyâofâethicalâissuesâandâ moralâchallengesâthatâariseâoutâofâtheâinterplayâofâemployersâandâemployeesâwithinâanâorganization,âinclud- ingâtheâproblemâofâdiscrimination.
Caseâstudiesâenhanceâtheâmainâtext.âTheseâcasesâvaryâ inâkindâandâ inâ length,âandâareâdesignedâtoâ enableâinstructorsâandâstudentsâtoâpursueâfurtherâsomeâofâtheâissuesâdiscussedâinâtheâtextâandâtoâanalyzeâ themâinâmoreâspecificâcontexts.âTheâcaseâstudiesâshouldâprovideâaâlivelyâspringboardâforâclassroomâdiscus- sionsâandâtheâapplicationâofâethicalâconcepts.
Business Ethics coversâaâwideârangeâofâ topicsârelevantâ toâ todayâsâworld.âThreeâofâ theseâareâworthâ drawingâparticularâattentionâto.
preface
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
x PrEfaCE
Business and Globalization Theâmoralâchallengesâfacingâbusinessâinâtodayâsâglobalizedâworldâeconomyâareâwellârepresentedâinâtheâbookâ andâseamlesslyâintegratedâintoâtheâchapters.âForâexample,âChapterâ1âdiscussesâethicalârelativism,âChapterâ 4âoutsourcingâandâglobalization,âandâChapterâ8âoverseasâbriberyâandâtheâForeignâCorruptâPracticesâAct;âandâ thereâareâinternationalâexamplesâorâcomparisonsâthroughoutâtheâbook.âMoreover,âalmostâallâtheâbasicâissuesâ discussedâinâtheâbookâ(suchâasâcorporateâresponsibility,âtheânatureâofâmoralâreasoning,âandâtheâvalueâofâtheâ naturalâworldâtoânameâjustâthree)âareâasâcrucialâtoâmakingâmoralâdecisionsâinâanâinternationalâbusinessâ contextâasâtheyâareâtoâmakingâthemâatâhome.âInâaddition,âcasesâ1.1,â2.3,â5.1,â5.2,â5.3,â6.3,â7.2,â7.5,â9.5,â andâ10.4âdealâexplicitlyâwithâmoralâissuesâarisingâinâtodayâsâglobalâeconomicâsystem.
The Environment Becauseâofâitsâongoingârelevanceâandâheightenedâimportanceâinâtodayâsâworld,âanâentireâchapter,âChapterâ 7,â isâdevotedâ toâ thisâ topic.â Inâparticular,â itâ highlightsâ recentâenvironmentalâdisasters,â theâenvironmentalâ dilemmasâandâchallengesâweâface,âandâtheirâsocialâandâbusinessâcosts,âasâwellâasâtheâchangingâattitudeâofâ businessâtowardâtheâenvironmentâandâecology.
Health and Health Care Farâ fromâbeingâaânarrowâacademicâpursuit,â theâstudyâofâbusinessâethicsâ isâ relevantâ toâaâwideâ rangeâofâ importantâsocialâissuesâforâexample,âtoâhealthâandâhealthâcare,âwhichâisâcurrentlyâtheâsubjectâofâmuchâ discussionâandâdebateâinâtheâUnitedâStates.ââAspectsâofâthisâtopicâareâaddressedâinâtheâtextâandâdevelopedâinâ theâfollowingâcases:â2.3:âBloodâforâSale,â4.2:âLicensingâandâLaissezâFaire,â5.2:âDrugâDilemmas,â6.1:âBreastâ Implants,â8.1:âAIDSâinâtheâWorkplace,âandâ9.4:âProtectingâtheâUnbornâatâWork.
⢠⢠â˘
changes in th is ed it ion Your Textbook Instructorsâwhoâhaveâusedâtheâpreviousâeditionâwillâfindâtheâorganizationâandâgeneralâcontentâofâtheâbookâ familiar.âTheyâwill,âhowever,âalsoâbeâstruckâbyâitsâfreshâdesignâandâbyâtheâgraphs,âtables,âphotographs,âandâ otherâinformationâthatânowâsupplementâtheâpedagogicalâfeaturesâintroducedâinâpreviousâeditions.
Feedbackâfromâstudentsâandâinstructorsâsuggestsâthatâreadersâbenefitâgreatlyânotâonlyâfromâmarginalâ summariesâandâhighlightsâbutâalsoâfromâvisualâbreaks,âvisualâguidance,âandâvisualâpresentationâofâdataâandâ information.âSo,âtheânewâdesignâwasâcraftedâtoâhelpâreadersânavigateâtheâtextâmoreâeasily,âretainâcontentâ moreâeffectively,âandâreviewâandâprepareâforâtestsâmoreâsuccessfully.âInâaddition,âtheâStudy Cornerânowâ alsoâincludesââForâFurtherâReflection,ââaâsetâofâopen-endedâquestionsâintendedâtoâhelpâstudentsâarticulateâ theirâownâresponseâtoâsomeâofâtheâissuesâdiscussedâinâtheâtext.âAnâupdatedâSuggestions for Further Reading isâintendedâtoâprovideâappropriateâmaterialâforâindependentâresearchâbyâstudentsâonâtopicsâcov- eredâinâBusiness Ethics.
Theâtextâitselfâhasâbeenâthoroughlyârevised.âIâhaveâupdatedâandâreorganizedâmaterialâthroughoutâtheâ bookâinâorderâtoâenhanceâtheâclarityâofâitsâdiscussionsâandâtheâaccuracyâofâitsâtreatmentâofâbothâphilosophi- calâandâempiricalâissues.âAtâallâtimesâtheâgoalâhasâbeenâtoâprovideâaâtextbookâthatâstudentsâwillâfindâclear,â understandable,âandâengaging.
Forty-nineâ caseâ studiesâmoreâ thanâ everâ beforeânowâ supplementâ theâ mainâ text.â ofâ theâ casesâ thatâareânewâtoâthisâedition,âtwoârelateâtoâtheâfinancialâandâmortgageâindustries:âCaseâ1.2,ââJustâDropâoffâ theâKey,âLee,ââbroachesâtheâongoingâforeclosureâcrisisâwhileâCaseâ4.5,ââCasinoâGamblingâonâWallâStreet,ââ discussesâoneâofâtheâfinancialâinstrumentsâinvolvedâinâtheârecentâfinancialâmeltdown.âCaseâ4.1,ââHucksters
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PrEfaCEâ â â xi
inâtheâClassroom,ââdealsâwithâcommercialâintrusionâintoâschools.âTheâethicsâofâsalesâisâtheâfocusâofâCaseâ 6.4,ââClosingâtheâDeal,ââwhileâCaseâ6.5,ââTheâRiseâandâFallâofâFourâLoko,ââhighlightsâtheâquestionâofâregu- latingâconsumerâproductsâonâpaternalisticâgrounds.âCaseâ8.5,ââUnionâDiscrimination,ââexaminesâsomeâofâ theâethicalâissuesâposedâbyâunions.âTheâenvironmentâandâtheâpushâandâpullâbetweenâbusinessâandâenvi- ronmentalistsâareâwellâillustratedâinâCaseâ7.5,ââPalmâoilâandâItsâProblems.ââCaseâ9.5,ââSwedishâDaddies,ââ showsâhowâtheâsometimesâconflictingâdemandsâofâparenthoodâandâworkâlifeâchallengeâtodayâsâemployeesâ andâemployers.âCasesâ10.2,ââConflictingâPerspectivesâonâConflictsâofâInterest,ââandâ10.3,ââInsideâTradersâ orâAstuteâobservers?,ââprovideârecentâexamplesâofâsomeâofâtheâethicalâstrugglesâemployeesâcanâconfront.â Finally,âtheâissueâofâcomparableâworthâisâtheâfocusâofâCaseâ11.3,ââRaisingâtheâAnte.â
Your Media Tools TheâBusiness Ethics CourseMateâisânewâtoâthisâedition.âItâcanâbeâaccessedâbyâsearchingâforâthisâbookâonâ CengageBrain.com.âThereâyouâwillâfindâanâarrayâofâonlineâtoolsâdesignedâtoâreinforceâtheoriesâandâconceptsâ andâhelpâstudentsâtoâunderstandâandâbetterâretainâtheâbookâsâcontent,âandâtoâreviewâandâstudyâforâtests:
Self-Tests TutorialâQuizzesâ(withâanswers) Essays Flashcards CurrentâEvents Glossaryâ PowerPointâSlides WebâLinks
InâadditionâtoâtheseâCourseMateâofferings,âvideoâtutorialsâwillâcomplementâeachâchapter.âWatchingâandâ reflectingâonâtheseâcanâhelpâstudentsâimproveâtheirâgrades.
Finally,âGlobal Business Ethics Watch exposesâviewersâtoâaâwealthâofâonlineâresources,âfromâphoto- graphsâtoâvideosâandâarticles.âUpdatedâseveralâtimesâaâday,âtheâGlobal Business Ethics Watchâisâanâidealâ one-stopâsiteâforâclassroomâdiscussionâandâresearchâprojectsâforâallâthingsârelatedâtoâbusinessâethics.âYouâandâ yourâstudentsâwillâhaveâaccessâtoâtheâlatestâinformationâfromâtrustedâacademicâjournals,ânewsâoutlets,âandâ magazines.âYouâalsoâwillâreceiveâaccessâtoâstatistics,âprimaryâsources,âcaseâstudies,âpodcasts,âandâmuchâmore.
⢠⢠â˘
Ways of us ing the Book Aâcourseâinâbusinessâethicsâcanâbeâtaughtâinâaâvarietyâofâways.âInstructorsâhaveâdifferentâapproachesâtoâ theâsubject,âdifferentâintellectualâandâpedagogicalâgoals,âandâdifferentâclassroomâstyles.âTheyâemphasizeâ differentâthemesâandâstartâatâdifferentâplaces.âSomeâofâthemâmayâpreferâtoâtreatâtheâfoundationalâquestionsâ ofâethicalâtheoryâthoroughlyâbeforeâmovingâonâtoâparticularâmoralâproblems;âothersâreverseâthisâpriority.âStillâ otherâinstructorsâframeâtheirâcoursesâaroundâtheâquestionâofâeconomicâjustice,âtheâanalysisâofâcapitalism,âorâ theâdebateâoverâcorporateâsocialâresponsibility.âSomeâinstructorsâstressâindividualâmoralâdecisionâmaking,â othersâsocialâandâeconomicâpolicy.
Business Ethicsâpermitsâteachersâgreatâflexibilityâinâhowâtheyâorganizeâtheirâcourses.âAâwideârangeâofâ theoreticalâandâappliedâissuesâareâdiscussed;âandâtheâindividualâchapters,âtheâmajorâsectionsâwithinâthem,â andâtheâcaseâstudiesâareâtoâaâsurprisingâextentâself-contained.âInstructorsâcanâthusâteachâtheâbookâinâwhat- everâorderâtheyâchoose,âandâtheyâcanâeasilyâskipâorâtouchâlightlyâonâsomeâtopicsâinâorderâtoâconcentrateâonâ othersâwithoutâlossâofâcoherence.
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xii PrEfaCE
⢠⢠â˘
acknoWledgMents Iâwishâtoâacknowledgeâmyâgreatâdebtâtoâtheâmanyâpeopleâwhoseâideasâandâwritingâhaveâinfluencedâmeâoverâ theâyears.âPhilosophyâisâwidelyârecognizedâtoâinvolveâaâprocessâofâongoingâdialogue.âThisâisânowhereâmoreâ evidentâthanâinâtheâwritingâofâtextbooks,âwhoseâauthorsâcanârarelyâclaimâthatâtheâideasâbeingâsynthesized,â organized,â andâ presentedâ areâ theirsâ alone.â Withoutâ myâ colleagues,â withoutâ myâ students,â andâ withoutâ aâ largerâphilosophicalâ communityâ concernedâwithâbusinessâandâethics,â thisâbookâwouldânotâ haveâbeenâ possible.
IâparticularlyâwantâtoâacknowledgeâmyâdebtâtoâVincentâBarry.âReadersâfamiliarâwithâourâtextbookâandâ readerâMoral Issues in Business1âwillârealizeâtheâextentâtoâwhichâIâhaveâdrawnâonâmaterialâfromâthatâwork.â Business Ethics is,â inâeffect,âaârevisedâandâupdatedâversionâofâ theâtextbookâportionâofâ thatâcollaborativeâ work,âandâIâamâveryâgratefulâtoâVinceâforâpermittingâmeâtoâuseâourâjointâworkâhere.
1WilliamâH.â ShawâandâVincentâ Barry,âMoral Issues in Business,â 12thâ ed.â (Belmont,â Calif.:âWadsworth/Cengageâ Learning,â 2013).
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1
part one | mor al philosophy and business
Ch a p t er 1
The N aT ure of Mor a l iT y
sometimes the riCh and mighty fall. Take Kenneth Lay, for example. Convicted by a jury in 2006 of conspiracy and multiple counts of fraud, he had been chair- man and CEO of Enron until that once mighty company took a nose dive and crashed. Founded in the 1980s, Enron soon became a dominant player in the field of energy trading, grow- ing rapidly to become Americaâs seventh biggest company. Wall Street loves growth, and Enron was its darling, admired as dynamic, innovative, andâof courseâ profitable. Enron stock exploded in value, increasing 40 percent in a single year. The next year it shot up 58 percent and the year after that an unbelievable 89 percent. The fact that nobody could quite understand exactly how the company made its money didnât seem to matter.
After Fortune magazine voted it âthe most innovative company of the yearâ in 2000, Enron proudly took to calling itself not just âthe worldâs leading energy companyâ but also âthe worldâs lead- ing company.â But when Enron was later forced to declare bankruptcyâat the time the largest Chapter 11 filing in U.S. historyâthe world learned that its legendary financial prowess was illusory and the companyâs success built on the sands of hype. And the hype continued to the end. Even with the com- panyâs financial demise fast approaching, Kenneth Lay was still recommending the companyâs stock to its employeesâat the
same time that he and other executives were cashing in their shares and bailing out.
Enronâs crash cost the retirement accounts of its employ- ees more than a billion dollars as the companyâs stock fell from the stratosphere to only a few pennies a share. Outside investors lost even more. The reason Enronâs collapse caught investors by surpriseâthe companyâs market value was $28 billion just two months before its bankruptcyâwas that Enron
had always made its financial records and accounts as opaque as possible. It did this by creating a Byzantine financial structure of off-balance-sheet special- purpose entitiesâreportedly as many as 9,000âthat were supposed to be separate and independent from the main company. Enronâs board of direc- tors condoned these and other dubious accounting practices and voted twice to permit executives to pursue personal interests that ran contrary to those of the company. When Enron was obliged
to redo its financial statements for one three-year period, its profits dropped $600 million and its debts increased $630 million.
Still, Enronâs financial auditors should have spotted these and other problems. After all, the shell game Enron was playing is an old one, and months before the company ran aground, Enron Vice President Sherron Watkins had warned Lay that
IntroductIon
the reason enronâs
collapse caught investors by surprise . . . was
that enron had always made its financial
records and accounts as opaque as possible.
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2â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness2â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
the company could soon âimplode in a wave of accounting scandals.â Yet both Arthur Andersen, Enronâs longtime outside auditing firm, and Vinson & Elkins, the companyâs law firm, had routinely put together and signed off on various dubious finan- cial deals, and in doing so made large profits for themselves. Arthur Andersen, in particular, was supposed to make sure that the companyâs public records reflected financial reality, but Andersen was more worried about its auditing and consulting fees than about its fiduciary responsibilities. Even worse, when the scandal began to break, a partner at Andersen organ- ized the shredding of incriminating Enron documents before investigators could lay their hands on them. As a result, the eighty-nine-year-old accounting firm was convicted of obstruct- ing justice. The Supreme Court later overturned that verdict on a technicality, but by then Arthur Andersen had already been driven out of business. (The year before Enron went under, by the way, the Securities and Exchange Commission fined Andersen $7 million for approving misleading accounts at Waste Management, and it also had to pay $110 million to settle a lawsuit for auditing work it did for Sunbeam before it, too, filed for bankruptcy. And when massive accounting fraud was later uncovered at WorldCom, it came out that the companyâs auditor wasâyou guessed itâArthur Andersen.)
Enronâs fall also revealed the conflicts of interest that threaten the credibility of Wall Streetâs analystsâanalysts who are compensated according to their ability to bring in and support investment banking deals. Enron was known in the industry as the âdeal machineâ because it generated so much
investment banking businessâlimited part- nerships, loans, and derivatives. That may explain why, only days before Enron filed bankruptcy, just two of the sixteen Wall Street analysts who covered the company recom- mended that clients sell the stock. The large banks that Enron did business with played a corrupt role, too, by helping manufacture its fraudulent financial statements. (Subsequent lawsuits have forced them to cough up some of their profits: Citibank, for example, had to pay Enronâs victimized shareholders $2 bil- lion.) But the rot didnât stop there. Enron and Andersen enjoyed extensive political connec- tions, which had helped over the years to ensure the passage of a series of deregula-
tory measures favorable to the energy company. Of the 248 members of Congress sitting on the eleven House and Senate committees charged with investigating Enronâs collapse, 212 had received money from Enron or its accounting firm.1
Stories of business corruption and of greed and wrongdoing in high places have always fascinated the popular press, and media interest in business ethics has never been higher. But one should not be misled by the headlines and news reports. Not all moral issues in business involve giant corporations and their well-heeled executives, and few cases of business ethics are widely publicized. The vast majority of them involve the mundane, uncelebrated moral challenges that working men and women meet daily.
Although the financial shenanigans at Enron were compli- cated, once their basic outline is sketched, the wrongdoing is pretty easy to see: deception, dishonesty, fraud, disregarding oneâs professional responsibilities, and unfairly injuring others for oneâs own gain. But many of the moral issues that arise in business are complex and difficult to answer. For example:
How far must manufacturers go to ensure product safety? Must they reveal everything about a product, including any possible defects or shortcomings? At what point does acceptable exaggeration become lying about a product or a service? When does aggressive marketing become consumer manipulation? Is adver- tising useful and important or deceptive, misleading, and socially detrimental? When are prices unfair or exploitative?
enronâsâstockâpriceâinâu.s.âdollarsâinâlateâ2001,âbeforeâitsâspectacularâcollapse
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 3chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 3
⢠⢠â˘
e Thics ethicsâ(orâmoralâphilosophy)âisâaâbroadâfieldâofâinquiryâthatâaddressesâaâfundamentalâqueryâ thatâallâofâus,âatâleastâfromâtimeâtoâtime,âinevitablyâthinkâaboutânamely,âhowâshouldâIâ liveâmyâlife?âThatâquestion,âofâcourse,âleadsâtoâothers,âsuchâas:âWhatâsortâofâpersonâshouldâ Iâstriveâtoâbe?âWhatâvaluesâareâimportant?âWhatâstandardsâorâprinciplesâshouldâIâliveâby?â exploringâtheseâissuesâimmersesâoneâinâtheâstudyâofârightâandâwrong.âamongâotherâthings,â moralâphilosophersâandâothersâwhoâthinkâseriouslyâaboutâethicsâwantâtoâunderstandâtheâ natureâofâmorality,âtheâmeaningâofâitsâbasicâconcepts,âtheâcharacteristicsâofâgoodâmoralârea- soning,âhowâmoralâjudgmentsâcanâbeâjustified,âand,âofâcourse,âtheâprinciplesâorâpropertiesâ thatâdistinguishârightâactionsâfromâwrongâactions.âThus,âethicsâdealsâwithâindividualâchar- acterâandâwithâtheâmoralârulesâthatâgovernâandâlimitâourâconduct.âItâinvestigatesâquestionsâ ofârightâandâwrong,âfairnessâandâunfairness,âgoodâandâbad,âdutyâandâobligation,âandâjusticeâ andâinjustice,âasâwellâasâmoralâresponsibilityâandâtheâvaluesâthatâshouldâguideâourâactions.
Youâsometimesâhearâ itâ saidâthatâ thereâsâaâdifferenceâbetweenâaâpersonâsâethicsâandâ hisâorâherâmorals.âThisâcanâbeâconfusingâbecauseâwhatâsomeâpeopleâmeanâbyâsayingâthatâ somethingâisâaâmatterâofâethicsâ(asâopposedâtoâmorals)âisâoftenâwhatâotherâpeopleâmean
summary Ethics deals with
individual character and the moral rules that govern and limit
our conduct. It investigates questions
of right and wrong, duty and obligation,
and moral responsibility.
Are corporations obliged to help combat social prob- lems? What are the environmental responsibilities of business, and is it living up to them? Are pollution per- mits a good idea? Is factory farming morally justifiable?
May employers screen potential employees on the basis of lifestyle, physical appearance, or personality tests? What rights do employees have on the job? Under what conditions may they be disciplined or fired? What, if anything, must business do to improve work conditions? When are wages fair? Do unions promote the interests of workers or infringe their rights? When, if ever, is an employee morally required to blow the whistle?
May employees ever use their positions inside an organization to advance their own interests? Is insider trading or the use of privileged information immoral? How much loyalty do workers owe their companies? What say should a business have over the off-the-job activities of its employees? Do drug tests violate their right to privacy?
What constitutes job discrimination, and how far must business go to ensure equality of opportunity? Is affirmative action a matter of justice, or a poor idea? How should organizations respond to the problem of sexual harassment?
learning objeCtives
These questions typify business issues with moral significance. The answers we give to them are determined, in large part, by our moral standardsâthat is, by the moral principles and values we accept. What moral standards are, where they come from, and how they can be assessed are some of the concerns of this opening chapter. In particular, you will encounter the fol- lowing topics:
1. The nature, scope, and purpose of business ethics
2. The distinguishing features of morality and how it differs from etiquette, law, and professional codes of conduct
3. The relationship between morality and religion
4. The doctrine of ethical relativism and its difficulties
5. What it means to have moral principles; the nature of conscience; and the relationship between morality and self-interest
6. The place of values and ideals in a personâs life
7. The social and psychological factors that sometimes jeopardize an individualâs integrity
8. The characteristics of sound moral reasoning
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4â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
byâsayingâthatâitâisâaâmatterâofâmoralsâ(andânotâethics).âInâfact,âhowever,âmostâpeopleâ(andâ mostâphilosophers)â seeânoâ realâdistinctionâbetweenâaâpersonâsâ âmoralsââ andâaâpersonâsâ âethics.ââandâ almostâ everyoneâusesâ âethicalââ andâ âmoralââ interchangeablyâ toâdescribeâ peopleâweâconsiderâgoodâandâactionsâweâconsiderâright,âandââunethicalââandââimmoralââ toâdesignateâbadâpeopleâandâwrongâactions.âThisâbookâfollowsâthatâcommonâusage.
Business and OrganizatiOnal ethics
Theâprimaryâfocusâofâthisâbookâisâethicsâasâitâappliesâtoâbusiness.âbusiness ethics isâtheâ studyâofâwhatâconstitutesârightâandâwrong,âorâgoodâandâbad,âhumanâconductâinâaâbusi- nessâcontext.âForâexample,âwouldâitâbeârightâforâaâstoreâmanagerâtoâbreakâaâpromiseâtoâaâ customerâandâsellâsomeâhard-to-findâmerchandiseâtoâsomeoneâelse,âwhoseâneedâforâitâisâ greater?âWhat,âifâanything,âshouldâaâmoralâemployeeâdoâwhenâhisâorâherâsuperiorsârefuseâ toâlookâintoâapparentâwrongdoingâinâaâbranchâoffice?âIfâyouâinnocentlyâcameâacrossâsecretâ informationâaboutâaâcompetitor,âwouldâitâbeâpermissibleâforâyouâtoâuseâitâforâyourâownâ advantage?
recentâbusinessâscandalsâhaveârenewedâtheâinterestâofâbusinessâleaders,âacademics,â andâsocietyâatâlargeâinâethics.âForâexample,âtheâassociationâtoâadvanceâcollegiateâSchoolsâ ofâBusiness,âwhichâcomprisesâallâtheâtopâbusinessâschools,âhasâintroducedânewârulesâonâ includingâethicsâ inâ theirâ curricula,â andâ theâBusinessâroundtableâ recentlyâunveiledâanâ initiativeâtoâtrainâtheânationâsâceosâinâtheâfinerâpointsâofâethics.âButâanâappreciationâ ofâtheâimportanceâofâethicsâforâaâhealthyâsocietyâandâaâconcern,âinâparticular,âforâwhatâ constitutesâethicalâconductâinâbusinessâgoâbackâtoâancientâtimes.âTheâromanâphilosopherâ ciceroâ(106â43âbce),âforâinstance,âdiscussedâtheâexample,âmuchâdebatedâatâtheâtime,â ofâanâhonestâmerchantâ fromâalexandriaâwhoâbringsâaâ largeâstockâofâwheatâtoârhodesâ whereâthereâisâaâfoodâshortage.âonâhisâwayâthere,âheâlearnsâthatâotherâtradersâareâsettingâ sailâforârhodesâwithâsubstantialâcargosâofâgrain.âShouldâheâtellâtheâpeopleâofârhodesâthatâ moreâwheatâisâonâtheâway,âorâsayânothingâandâsellâatâtheâbestâpriceâheâcan?âSomeâancientâ ethicistsâarguedâthatâalthoughâtheâmerchantâmustâdeclareâdefectsâinâhisâwaresâasârequiredâ byâlaw,âasâaâvendorâheâisâfreeâprovidedâheâtellsânoâuntruthsâtoâsellâhisâgoodsâasâprofit- ablyâasâheâcan.âothers,âincludingâcicero,âarguedâtoâtheâcontraryâthatâallâtheâfactsâmustâbeâ revealedâandâthatâbuyersâmustâbeâasâfullyâinformedâasâsellers.2
âBusinessââandââbusinesspersonââareâbroadâterms.âaââbusinessââcouldâbeâaâfoodâtruckâ orâaâmultinationalâcorporationâthatâoperatesâinâseveralâcountries.ââBusinesspersonââcouldâ referâtoâaâstreetâvendorâorâaâcompanyâpresidentâresponsibleâforâthousandsâofâworkersâandâ millionsâofâshareholderâdollars.âaccordingly,âtheâwordâbusinessâwillâbeâusedâhereâsim- plyâtoâmeanâanyâorganizationâwhoseâobjectiveâisâtoâprovideâgoodsâorâservicesâforâprofit.â businesspeopleâareâthoseâwhoâparticipateâinâplanning,âorganizing,âorâdirectingâtheâworkâ ofâbusiness.
Butâthisâbookâtakesâaâbroaderâviewâasâwellâbecauseâitâisâconcernedâwithâmoralâissuesâ thatâ ariseâ anywhereâ thatâ employersâ andâ employeesâ comeâ together.â Thus,â itâ addressesâ organizationalâ ethicsâ asâ wellâ asâ businessâ ethics.â anâ organizationâ isâ aâ groupâ ofâ peopleâ workingâtogetherâtoâachieveâaâcommonâpurpose.âTheâpurposeâmayâbeâtoâofferâaâproductâ orâaâserviceâprimarilyâforâprofit,âasâinâbusiness.âButâtheâpurposeâalsoâcouldâbeâhealthâcare,â asâinâmedicalâorganizations;âpublicâsafetyâandâorder,âasâinâlaw-enforcementâorganizations;â education,âasâinâacademicâorganizations;âandâsoâon.âTheâcasesâandâillustrationsâpresentedâ inâ thisâ bookâdealâwithâmoralâ issuesâ andâdilemmasâ inâbothâbusinessâ andânonbusinessâ organizationalâsettings.
summary Business ethics is the
study of what constitutes right and wrong (or good and
bad) human conduct in a business context.
Closely related moral questions arise in other
organizational contexts.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 5
peopleâoccasionallyâpokeâfunâatâtheâideaâofâbusinessâethics,âdeclaringâthatâtheâtermâisâ aâcontradictionâorâthatâbusinessâhasânoâethics.âSuchâpeopleâtakeâthemselvesâtoâbeâworldlyâ andârealistic.âTheyâthinkâtheyâhaveâaâdown-to-earthâideaâofâhowâthingsâreallyâwork.âInâ fact,âdespiteâitsâpretenseâofâsophistication,âtheirâattitudeâshowsâlittleâgraspâofâtheânatureâ ofâethicsâandâonlyâaâsuperficialâunderstandingâofâtheârealâworldâofâbusiness.âreadingâthisâ bookâshouldâhelpâyouâcomprehendâhowâinaccurateâandâmistakenâtheirâviewâis.
⢠⢠â˘
Mor al V ersus NoNMor al sTaNda rds Moralâquestionsâdifferâfromâotherâkindsâofâquestions.âWhetherâtheâoldâcomputerâinâyourâ officeâcanâcopyâaâpiratedâDVDâisâaâfactualâquestion.âByâcontrast,âwhetherâyouâshouldâ copyâtheâDVDâisâaâmoralâquestion.âWhenâweâanswerâaâmoralâquestionâorâmakeâaâmoralâ judgment,â weâ appealâ toâ moralâ standards.â Theseâ standardsâ differâ fromâ otherâ kindsâ ofâ standards.
Wearingâshortsâandâaâtankâtopâtoâaâformalâdinnerâpartyâisâboorishâbehavior.âWritingâ anâessayâthatâisâfilledâwithâdoubleânegativesâorâlacksâsubject-verbâagreementâviolatesâtheâ basicâconventionsâofâproperâlanguageâusage.âphotographingâsomeoneâatânightâwithoutâ theâflashâturnedâonâisâpoorâphotographicâtechnique.âInâeachâcaseâaâstandardâisâviolatedâ fashion,â grammatical,â technicalâbutâ theâ violationâ doesâ notâ poseâ aâ seriousâ threatâ toâ humanâwell-being.
moral standards areâ differentâ becauseâ theyâ concernâ behaviorâ thatâ isâ ofâ seriousâ consequenceâtoâhumanâwelfare,âthatâcanâprofoundlyâinjureâorâbenefitâpeople.3âTheâcon- ventionalâmoralânormsâagainstâlying,âstealing,âandâkillingâdealâwithâactionsâthatâcanâhurtâ people.âandâtheâmoralâprincipleâthatâhumanâbeingsâshouldâbeâtreatedâwithâdignityâandâ respectâupliftsâtheâhumanâpersonality.âWhetherâproductsâareâhealthfulâorâharmful,âworkâ conditionsâsafeâorâdangerous,âpersonnelâproceduresâbiasedâorâfair,âprivacyârespectedâorâ invadedââtheseâareâalsoâmattersâthatâseriouslyâaffectâhumanâwell-being.âTheâstandardsâ thatâgovernâourâconductâinâtheseâareasâareâmoralâstandards.
aâ secondâ characteristicâ followsâ fromâ theâ first.â Moralâ standardsâ takeâ priorityâ overâotherâstandards,âincludingâself-interest.âSomethingâthatâmoralityâcondemnsâforâ instance,âtheâburglaryâofâyourâneighborâsâhomeâcannotâbeâjustifiedâonâtheânonmoralâ groundsâ thatâ itâwouldâbeâaâ thrillâ toâdoâ itâorâ thatâ itâwouldâpayâoffâhandsomely.âWeâ takeâmoralâstandardsâtoâbeâmoreâimportantâthanâotherâconsiderationsâinâguidingâourâ actions.
aâthirdâcharacteristicâofâmoralâstandardsâisâthatâtheirâsoundnessâdependsâonâtheâade- quacyâofâtheâreasonsâthatâsupportâorâjustifyâthem.âForâtheâmostâpart,âfashionâstandardsâ areâsetâbyâclothingâdesigners,âmerchandisers,âandâconsumers;âgrammaticalâstandardsâbyâ grammariansâandâstudentsâofâlanguage;âtechnicalâstandardsâbyâpractitionersâandâexpertsâ inâtheâfield.âLegislatorsâmakeâlaws,âboardsâofâdirectorsâmakeâorganizationalâpolicy,âandâ licensingâboardsâestablishâstandardsâforâprofessionals.âInâthoseâcases,âsomeâauthoritativeâ bodyâisâtheâultimateâvalidatingâsourceâofâtheâstandardsâandâthusâcanâchangeâtheâstandardsâ ifâitâwishes.âMoralâstandardsâareânotâmadeâbyâsuchâbodies.âTheirâvalidityâdependsânotâ onâofficialâfiatâbutâratherâonâtheâqualityâofâtheâargumentsâorâtheâreasoningâthatâsupportsâ them.âexactlyâwhatâconstitutesâadequateâgroundsâorâjustificationâforâaâmoralâstandardâis
Moral standards concern behavior that seriously affects human well-being.
Moral standards take priority over other standards.
The soundness of moral standards depends on the adequacy of the reasons that support them.
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6â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
aâdebatedâquestion,âwhich,âasâweâshallâseeâinâchapterâ2,âunderliesâdisagreementâamongâ philosophersâoverâwhichâspecificâmoralâprinciplesâareâbest.
althoughâtheseâthreeâcharacteristicsâsetâmoralâstandardsâapartâfromâotherâstandards,â itâisâusefulâtoâdiscussâmoreâspecificallyâhowâmoralityâdiffersâfromâthreeâthingsâwithâwhichâ itâisâsometimesâconfused:âetiquette,âlaw,âandâprofessionalâcodesâofâethics.
MOrality and etiquette
etiquetteârefersâtoâtheânormsâofâcorrectâconductâinâpoliteâsocietyâor,âmoreâgenerally,âtoâ anyâspecialâcodeâofâsocialâbehaviorâorâcourtesy.âInâourâsociety,âforâexample,âitâisâconsideredâ badâetiquetteâtoâchewâwithâyourâmouthâopenâorâtoâpickâyourânoseâwhenâtalkingâtoâsome- one;âitâisâconsideredâgoodâetiquetteâtoâsayââpleaseââwhenârequestingâandââthankâyouââwhenâ receiving,âandâtoâholdâaâdoorâopenâforâsomeoneâenteringâimmediatelyâbehindâyou.âGoodâ businessâ etiquetteâ typicallyâ callsâ forâwritingâ follow-upâ lettersâ afterâmeetings,â returningâ phoneâcalls,âandâdressingâappropriately.âItâisâcommonplaceâtoâjudgeâpeopleâsâmannersâasâ âgoodââorââbadââandâtheâconductâthatâreflectsâthemâasâârightââorââwrong.âââGood,âââbad,ââ âright,ââandââwrongââhereâsimplyâmeanâsociallyâappropriateâorâsociallyâinappropriate.âInâ theseâcontexts,âsuchâwordsâexpressâjudgmentsâaboutâmanners,ânotâaboutâethics.
Theârulesâofâetiquetteâareâprescriptionsâforâsociallyâacceptableâbehavior.âIfâyouâviolateâ them,âyouâreâlikelyâtoâbeâconsideredâill-mannered,âimpolite,âorâevenâuncivilized,âbutânotâ necessarilyâimmoral.âIfâyouâwantâtoâfitâin,âgetâalongâwithâothers,âandâbeâthoughtâwellâ ofâbyâthem,âyouâshouldâobserveâtheâcommonârulesâofâpolitenessâorâetiquette.âhowever,â whatâsâ consideredâ correctâ orâ politeâ conductâforâ example,â whenâ greetingâ anâ elderlyâ person,âwhenâusingâyourâknifeâandâ fork,âorâwhenâdeterminingâhowâcloseâ toâ standâ toâ someoneâyouâreâconversingâwithâcanâchangeâoverâtimeâandâvaryâfromâsocietyâtoâsociety.
althoughârulesâofâetiquetteâareâgenerallyânonmoralâinâcharacter,âviolationsâofâthoseâ rulesâcanâhaveâmoralâimplications.âForâexample,âtheâmaleâbossâwhoârefersâtoâfemaleâsub- ordinatesâasââhoneyââorââdollââshowsâbadâmanners.âIfâsuchâepithetsâdiminishâtheâworthâ ofâfemaleâemployeesâorâperpetuateâsexism,âthenâtheyâalsoâraiseâmoralâissuesâconcerningâ equalâtreatmentâandâdenialâofâdignityâtoâhumanâbeings.âMoreâgenerally,ârudeâorâimpoliteâ conductâcanâbeâoffensive,âandâitâmayâsometimesâfailâtoâshowâtheârespectâforâotherâpersonsâ thatâmoralityârequiresâofâus.âForâthisâreason,âitâisâimportantâtoâexerciseâcare,âinâbusinessâ situationsâandâelsewhere,âwhenâdealingâwithâunfamiliarâcustomsâorâpeopleâfromâaâdiffer- entâculture.
Scrupulousâobservanceâofârulesâofâetiquette,âhowever,âdoesânotâmakeâaâpersonâmoral.â Inâfact,âitâcanâsometimesâcamouflageâethicalâissues.âInâsomeâpartsâofâtheâUnitedâStatesâ fiftyâorâsoâyearsâago,âitâwasâconsideredâbadâmannersâforâblacksâandâwhitesâtoâeatâtogether.â however,âthoseâwhoâobeyedâthisâconventionâwereânotâactingâinâaâmorallyâdesirableâway.â Inâtheâ1960s,âblackâandâwhiteâmembersâofâtheâcivilârightsâmovementâsoughtâtoâdramatizeâ theâinjusticeâthatâ layâbehindâthisâruleâbyâsittingâtogetherâ inâluncheonettesâandârestau- rants.âalthoughâjudgedâatâtheâtimeâtoâlackâgoodâmanners,âtheyâthoughtâthatâthisâwasâaâ smallâpriceâtoâpayâforâexposingâtheâunequalâtreatmentâandâhumanâdegradationâunderly- ingâthisâruleâofâetiquette.
MOrality and law
Beforeâdistinguishingâbetweenâmoralityâandâlaw,â letâsâexamineâtheâtermâ law.âBasically,â thereâareâfourâkindsâofâlaw:âstatutes,âregulations,âcommonâlaw,âandâconstitutionalâlaw.
summary We appeal to moral standards when we
answer a moral question or make a
moral judgment. Three characteristics of moral standards
distinguish them from other kinds of
standards.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 7
statutesâ areâ lawsâenactedâbyâ legislativeâbodies.âForâexample,â theâ lawâ thatâdefinesâ andâprohibitsârecklessâdrivingâonâtheâhighwayâisâaâstatute.âcongressâandâstateâlegislaturesâ enactâstatutes.â(Lawsâenactedâbyâlocalâgoverningâbodiesâsuchâasâcityâcouncilsâareâusuallyâ termedâordinances.)âStatutesâmakeâupâaâlargeâpartâofâtheâlawâandâareâwhatâmanyâofâusâ meanâwhenâweâspeakâofââlaws.â
Limitedâinâtheirâtimeâandâknowledge,â legislaturesâoftenâsetâupâboardsâorâagenciesâ whoseâfunctionsâincludeâissuingâdetailedâregulationsâcoveringâcertainâkindsâofâconductâ administrative regulations.âForâexample,âstateâlegislaturesâestablishâlicensingâboardsâtoâ formulateâregulationsâforâtheâlicensingâofâphysiciansâandânurses.âasâlongâasâtheseâregula- tionsâdoânotâexceedâtheâboardâsâstatutoryâpowersâandâdoânotâconflictâwithâotherâkindsâofâ law,âtheyâareâlegallyâbinding.
Common law refersâ toâ theâ bodyâ ofâ judge-madeâ lawâ thatâ firstâ developedâ inâ theâ english-speakingâworldâcenturiesâagoâwhenâthereâwereâfewâstatutes.âcourtsâfrequentlyâ wroteâopinionsâ explainingâ theâbasesâofâ theirâdecisionsâ inâ specificâ cases,â includingâ theâ legalâprinciplesâthoseâdecisionsârestedâon.âeachâofâtheseâopinionsâbecameâaâprecedentâforâ laterâdecisionsâinâsimilarâcases.âTheâmassiveâbodyâofâprecedentsâandâlegalâprinciplesâthatâ accumulatedâoverâtheâyearsâisâcollectivelyâreferredâtoâasââcommonâlaw.ââLikeâadministra- tiveâregulations,âcommonâlawâisâvalidâifâitâharmonizesâwithâstatutoryâlawâandâwithâstillâ anotherâkind:âconstitutionalâlaw.
Constitutional lawârefersâtoâcourtârulingsâonâtheârequirementsâofâtheâconstitutionâ andâtheâconstitutionalityâofâlegislation.âTheâU.S.âconstitutionâempowersâtheâcourtsâtoâ decideâwhetherâlawsâareâcompatibleâwithâtheâconstitution.âStateâcourtsâmayâalsoâruleâonâ theâconstitutionalityâofâstateâlawsâunderâstateâconstitutions.âalthoughâtheâcourtsâcannotâ makeâlaws,âtheyâhaveâfar-reachingâpowersâtoâruleâonâtheâconstitutionalityâofâ lawsâandâ toâdeclareâthemâinvalidâifâtheyâconflictâwithâtheâconstitution.âInâtheâUnitedâStates,âtheâ Supremeâcourtâhasâtheâgreatestâjudiciaryâpowerâandârulesâonâanâarrayâofâcases,âsomeâofâ whichâbearâdirectlyâonâtheâstudyâofâbusinessâethics.
peopleâsometimesâconfuseâlegalityâandâmorality,âbutâtheyâareâdifferentâthings.âonâoneâ hand,âbreakingâtheâlawâisânotâalwaysâorânecessarilyâimmoral.âonâtheâotherâhand,âtheâlegalityâ ofâanâactionâdoesânotâguaranteeâthatâitâisâmorallyâright.âLetâsâconsiderâtheseâpointsâfurther.
1. an action can be illegal but morally right. Forâexample,âhelpingâaâJewishâfamilyâtoâ hideâfromâtheânazisâwasâagainstâGermanâlawâinâ1939,âbutâitâwouldâhaveâbeenâaâmor- allyâadmirableâthingâtoâhaveâdone.âofâcourse,âtheânaziâregimeâwasâviciousâandâevil.â Byâcontrast,â inâaâdemocraticâsocietyâwithâaâbasicallyâ justâ legalâorder,âtheâfactâthatâ somethingâisâillegalâprovidesâaâmoralâconsiderationâagainstâdoingâit.âForâexample,â oneâmoralâreasonâforânotâburningâtrashâinâyourâbackyardâisâthatâitâviolatesâanâordi- nanceâthatâyourâcommunityâhasâvotedâinâfavorâof.âSomeâphilosophersâbelieveâthatâ sometimesâtheâillegalityâofâanâactionâcanâmakeâitâmorallyâwrong,âevenâifâtheâactionâ wouldâotherwiseâhaveâbeenâmorallyâacceptable.âButâevenâifâtheyâareârightâaboutâthat,â theâ factâ thatâ somethingâ isâ illegalâ doesâ notâ trumpâ allâ otherâ moralâ considerations.â nonconformityâtoâlawâisânotâalwaysâimmoral,âevenâinâaâdemocraticâsociety.âThereâ canâbeâcircumstancesâwhere,âallâthingsâconsidered,âviolatingâtheâlawâisâmorallyâper- missible,âperhapsâevenâmorallyârequired.
probablyânoâoneâinâtheâmodernâeraâhasâexpressedâthisâpointâmoreâeloquentlyâ thanâDr.âMartinâLutherâKing,âJr.âconfinedâinâtheâBirmingham,âalabama,âcityâjailâ onâchargesâofâparadingâwithoutâaâpermit,âKingâpennedâhisânowâfamousââLetterâfrom
Legality should not be confused with morality. Breaking the law isnât always or necessarily immoral, and the legality of an action doesnât guarantee its morality.
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8â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
BirminghamâJailââtoâeightâofâhisâfellowâclergymenâwhoâhadâpublishedâaâstatementâ attackingâKingâsâunauthorizedâprotestâofâracialâsegregationâasâunwiseâandâuntimely.â Kingâwrote:
allâsegregationâstatutesâareâunjustâbecauseâsegregationâdistortsâtheâsoulâandâdamagesâ theâpersonality.âItâgivesâtheâsegregatorâaâfalseâsenseâofâsuperiorityâandâtheâsegregatedâ aâfalseâsenseâofâinferiority.âSegregation,âtoâuseâtheâterminologyâofâtheâJewishâphilosopherâ Martinâ Buber,â substitutesâ anâ âI-itââ relationshipâ forâ anâ âI-thouââ relationshipâ andâ endsâupârelegatingâpersonsâtoâtheâstatusâofâthings.âhenceâsegregationâisânotâonlyâpoliti- cally,âeconomically,âandâsociologicallyâunsound,âitâisâmorallyâwrongâandâsinful.â.â.â.â ThusâitâisâthatâIâcanâurgeâmenâtoâobeyâtheâ1954âdecisionâofâtheâSupremeâcourt,*âforâ itâisâmorallyâright;âandâIâcanâurgeâthemâtoâdisobeyâsegregationâordinances,âforâtheyâ areâmorallyâwrong.4
2. an action that is legal can be morally wrong. Forâexample,âitâmayâhaveâbeenâper- fectlyâlegalâforâtheâchairmanâofâaâprofitableâcompanyâtoâlayâoffâ125âworkersâandâuseâ three-quartersâofâtheâmoneyâsavedâtoâboostâhisâpayâandâthatâofâtheâcompanyâsâotherâ topâmanagers,5âbutâtheâmoralityâofâhisâdoingâsoâisâopenâtoâdebate.
or,âtoâtakeâanotherâexample,âsupposeâthatâyouâreâdrivingâtoâworkâoneâdayâandâ seeâanâaccidentâvictimâsittingâonâtheâsideâofâtheâroad,âclearlyâinâshockâandâneedingâ medicalâassistance.âBecauseâyouâknowâfirstâaidâandâareâinânoâgreatâhurryâtoâgetâtoâ yourâdestination,â youâcouldâ easilyâ stopâ andâassistâ theâperson.âLegallyâ speaking,â though,âyouâareânotâobligatedâ toâ stopâandârenderâaid.âUnderâcommonâ law,â theâ prudentâthingâwouldâbeâtoâdriveâon,âbecauseâbyâstoppingâyouâcouldâthusâ incurâ legalâliabilityâifâyouâfailâtoâexerciseâreasonableâcareâandâtherebyâinjureâtheâperson.â Manyâ statesâ haveâ enactedâ so-calledâGoodâSamaritanâ lawsâ toâprovideâ immunityâ fromâdamagesâtoâthoseârenderingâaidâ(exceptâforâgrossânegligenceâorâseriousâmis- conduct).âButâinâmostâstates,âtheâlawâdoesânotâobligeâpeopleâtoâgiveâsuchâaidâorâ evenâtoâcallâanâambulance.âMoralâtheoristsâwouldâagree,âhowever,âthatâifâyouâspedâ awayâwithoutâhelpingâorâevenâcallingâforâhelp,âyourâactionâmightâbeâperfectlyâlegalâ butâwouldâbeâmorallyâsuspect.âregardlessâofâtheâlaw,âsuchâconductâwouldâalmostâ certainlyâbeâwrong.
Whatâthenâmayâweâsayâaboutâtheârelationshipâbetweenâlawâandâmorality?âtoâaâsignif- icantâextent,âlawâcodifiesâaâsocietyâsâcustoms,âideals,ânorms,âandâmoralâvalues.âchangesâinâ lawâtendâtoâreflectâchangesâinâwhatâaâsocietyâtakesâtoâbeârightâandâwrong,âbutâsometimesâ changesâinâtheâlawâcanâalterâpeopleâsâideasâaboutâtheârightnessâorâwrongnessâofâconduct.â however,âevenâifâaâsocietyâsâlawsâareâsensibleâandâmorallyâsound,âitâisâaâmistakeâtoâseeâ themâasâsufficientâtoâestablishâtheâmoralâstandardsâthatâshouldâguideâus.âTheâlawâcannotâ coverâallâpossibleâhumanâconduct,âandâinâmanyâsituationsâitâisâtooâbluntâanâinstrumentâ toâprovideâadequateâmoralâguidance.âTheâlawâgenerallyâprohibitsâegregiousâaffrontsâtoâaâ societyâsâmoralâstandardsâandâinâthatâsenseâisâtheââfloorââofâmoralâconduct,âbutâbreachesâ ofâmoralâconductâcanâslipâthroughâcracksâinâthatâfloor.
summary Morality must be
distinguished from etiquette (rules for
well-mannered behavior), from law
(statutes, regulations, common law, and
constitutional law), and from professional
codes of ethics (the special rules governing
the members of a profession).
*In Brown v. Board of Education of Topekaâ (1954),â theâ Supremeâcourtâ struckâdownâ theâ âhalf-century-oldâ âseparateâbutâequalâdoctrine,ââwhichâpermittedâraciallyâsegregatedâschoolsâasâlongâasâcomparableâqualityâwasâ maintained.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 9
PrOfessiOnal cOdes
Somewhereâ betweenâ etiquetteâ andâ lawâ lieâ professional codes of ethics.â Theseâ areâ theâ rulesâ thatâ areâ supposedâ toâgovernâ theâconductâofâmembersâofâ aâgivenâprofession.â adheringâtoâtheseârulesâisâaârequiredâpartâofâmembershipâinâthatâprofession.âViolationâ ofâaâprofessionalâcodeâmayâresultâinâtheâdisapprovalâofâoneâsâprofessionalâpeersâand,âinâ seriousâcases,âlossâofâoneâsâlicenseâtoâpracticeâthatâprofession.âSometimesâtheseâcodesâareâ unwrittenâandâareâpartâofâtheâcommonâunderstandingâofâmembersâofâaâparticularâprofes- sionâforâexample,â thatâprofessorsâ shouldânotâdateâ theirâ students.â Inâotherâ instances,â theseâcodesâorâportionsâofâthemâmayâbeâwrittenâdownâbyâanâauthoritativeâbodyâsoâtheyâ mayâbeâbetterâtaughtâandâmoreâefficientlyâenforced.
Theseâwrittenârulesâareâsometimesâsoâvagueâandâgeneralâasâtoâbeâofâlittleâvalue,âandâ oftenâtheyâamountâtoâlittleâmoreâthanâself-promotionâbyâtheâprofessionalâorganization.â Theâsameâisâfrequentlyâtrueâwhenâindustriesâorâcorporationsâpublishâstatementsâofâtheirâ ethicalâstandards.âInâotherâcasesâforâexample,âwithâattorneysâprofessionalâcodesâcanâ beâveryâspecificâandâdetailed.âItâisâdifficultâtoâgeneralizeâaboutâtheâcontentâofâprofessionalâ codesâofâethics,âhowever,âbecauseâ theyâ frequentlyâ involveâaâmixâofâpurelyâmoralâ rulesâ (forâexample,âclientâconfidentiality),âofâprofessionalâetiquetteâ(forâexample,âtheâbillingâ ofâservicesâtoâotherâprofessionals),âandâofârestrictionsâintendedâtoâbenefitâtheâgroupâsâeco- nomicâinterestsâ(forâexample,âlimitationsâonâpriceâcompetition).
Givenâtheirânature,âprofessionalâcodesâofâethicsâareâneitherâaâcompleteânorâaâcom- pletelyâreliableâguideâtoâoneâsâmoralâobligations.ânotâallâtheârulesâofâaâprofessionalâcodeâ areâpurelyâmoralâinâcharacter,âandâevenâwhenâtheyâare,âtheâfactâthatâaâruleâisâofficiallyâ enshrinedâasâpartâofâtheâcodeâofâaâprofessionâdoesânotâguaranteeâthatâitâisâaâsoundâmoralâ principle.âasâaâprofessional,âyouâmustâtakeâseriouslyâtheâinjunctionsâofâyourâprofession,â butâyouâstillâhaveâtheâresponsibilityâtoâcriticallyâassessâthoseârulesâforâyourself.
You come upon this sceneâthe car is smoking, and it is clear that an accident just took place. In most states, you are not legally obligated to stop and offer help to the victims.
Re ch
ita n
So rin
/ S hu
tte rs
to ck
.co m
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10â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
regardingâthoseâpartsâofâtheâcodeâthatâconcernâetiquetteâorâfinancialâmatters,âbearâinâ mindâthatâbyâjoiningâaâprofessionâyouâareâprobablyâagreeing,âexplicitlyâorâimplicitly,âtoâ abideâbyâthoseâstandards.âassumingâthatâthoseârulesâdonâtârequireâmorallyâimpermissibleâ conduct,âthenâconsentingâtoâthemâgivesâyouâsomeâmoralâobligationâtoâfollowâthem.âInâ addition,âforâmany,âlivingâupâtoâtheâstandardsâofâoneâsâchosenâprofessionâisâanâimportantâ sourceâofâpersonalâsatisfaction.âStill,âyouâmustâbeâalertâtoâsituationsâinâwhichâprofessionalâ standardsâ orâ customaryâ professionalâ practiceâ conflictsâ withâ ordinaryâ ethicalâ require- ments.âadherenceâtoâaâprofessionalâcodeâdoesânotâexemptâyourâconductâfromâscrutinyâ fromâtheâbroaderâperspectiveâofâmorality.
where dO MOral standards cOMe frOM?
Soâfarâyouâhaveâseenâhowâmoralâstandardsâareâdifferentâfromâvariousânonmoralâstandards,â butâyouâprobablyâwonderâaboutâtheâsourceâofâthoseâmoralâstandards.âMost,âifânotâall,â peopleâhaveâcertainâmoralâprinciplesâorâaâmoralâcodeâthatâtheyâexplicitlyâorâimplicitlyâ accept.â Becauseâ theâ moralâ principlesâ ofâ differentâ peopleâ inâ theâ sameâ societyâ overlap,â atâleastâinâpart,âweâcanâalsoâtalkâaboutâtheâmoralâcodeâofâaâsociety,âmeaningâtheâmoralâ standardsâsharedâbyâitsâmembers.âhowâdoâweâcomeâtoâhaveâcertainâmoralâprinciplesâandâ notâothers?âobviously,âmanyâthingsâinfluenceâwhatâmoralâprinciplesâweâaccept:âourâearlyâ upbringing,âtheâbehaviorâofâthoseâaroundâus,âtheâexplicitâandâimplicitâstandardsâofâourâ culture,âourâownâexperiences,âandâourâcriticalâreflectionsâonâthoseâexperiences.
Forâ philosophers,â though,â theâ centralâ questionâ isâ notâ howâ weâ cameâ toâ haveâ theâ particularâprinciplesâweâhave.âTheâphilosophicalâissueâisâwhetherâthoseâprinciplesâcanâbeâ justified.âDoâweâsimplyâtakeâforâgrantedâtheâvaluesâofâthoseâaroundâus?âor,âlikeâMartinâ LutherâKing,âJr.,âareâweâableâtoâthinkâindependentlyâaboutâmoralâmatters?âByâanalogy,â weâpickâupâourânonmoralâbeliefsâ fromâallâ sortsâofâ sources:âbooks,â conversationsâwithâ friends,â movies,â variousâ experiencesâ weâveâ had.â Whatâ isâ important,â however,â isâ notâ howâweâacquiredâtheâbeliefsâweâhave,âbutâwhetherâorâtoâwhatâextentâthoseâbeliefsâforâ example,âthatâwomenâareâmoreâemotionalâthanâmenâorâthatâtelekinesisâisâpossibleâcanâ withstandâcriticalâscrutiny.âLikewise,âethicalâtheoriesâattemptâtoâjustifyâmoralâstandardsâ andâethicalâbeliefs.âTheânextâchapterâexaminesâsomeâofâtheâmajorâtheoriesâofânormativeâ ethics.âItâlooksâatâwhatâsomeâofâtheâmajorâthinkersâinâhumanâhistoryâhaveâarguedâareâtheâ best-justifiedâstandardsâofârightâandâwrong.
Butâfirstâweâneedâtoâconsiderâtheârelationshipâbetweenâmoralityâandâreligionâonâtheâ oneâhandâandâbetweenâmoralityâandâsocietyâonâtheâother.âSomeâpeopleâmaintainâthatâ moralityâjustâboilsâdownâtoâreligion.âothersâhaveâarguedâforâtheâdoctrineâofâethical rela- tivism,âwhichâsaysâthatârightâandâwrongâareâonlyâaâfunctionâofâwhatâaâparticularâsocietyâ takesâtoâbeârightâandâwrong.âBothâthoseâviewsâareâmistaken.
⢠⢠â˘
rel ig ioN a Nd Mor al iT y anyâreligionâprovidesâitsâbelieversâwithâaâworldview,âpartâofâwhichâinvolvesâcertainâmoralâ instructions,âvalues,âandâcommitments.âTheâJewishâandâchristianâtraditions,â toânameâ justâtwo,âofferâaâviewâofâhumansâasâuniqueâproductsâofâaâdivineâinterventionâthatâhasâ endowedâ themâwithâ consciousnessâ andâ anâ abilityâ toâ love.âBothâ theseâ traditionsâposit
You should take seriously the code that governs your
profession, but you still have a
responsibility to assess its rules for
yourself.
For philosophers, the important issue is
not where our moral principles came
from, but whether they can be justified.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 11
creaturesâwhoâstandâmidwayâbetweenânatureâandâspirit.âonâoneâhand,âweâareâfiniteâandâ boundâtoâearth,ânotâonlyâcapableâofâwrongdoingâbutâalsoâbornâmorallyâflawedâ(originalâ sin).âonâtheâother,âweâcanâtranscendânatureâandârealizeâinfiniteâpossibilities.
primarilyâbecauseâofâtheâinfluenceâofâWesternâreligion,âmanyâamericansâandâothersâ viewâthemselvesâasâbeingsâwithâaâsupernaturalâdestiny,âasâpossessingâaâlifeâafterâdeath,â asâbeingâimmortal.âoneâsâpurposeâinâlifeâisâfoundâinâservingâandâlovingâGod.âForâtheâ christian,âtheâwayâtoâserveâandâloveâGodâisâbyâemulatingâtheâlifeâofâJesusâofânazareth.â Inâ theâ lifeâ ofâ Jesus,â christiansâ findâ anâ expressionâ ofâ theâ highestâ virtueâlove.â Theyâ loveâwhenâtheyâperformâselflessâacts,âdevelopâaâkeenâsocialâconscience,âandârealizeâthatâ humanâbeingsâareâcreaturesâofâGodâandâthereforeâintrinsicallyâworthwhile.âForâtheâJew,â oneâservesâandâlovesâGodâchieflyâthroughâexpressionsâofâjusticeâandârighteousness.âJewsâ alsoâdevelopâ aâ senseâofâhonorâderivedâ fromâaâ commitmentâ toâ truth,âhumility,âfidel- ity,âandâkindness.âThisâcommitmentâhonesâtheirâsenseâofâresponsibilityâtoâfamilyâandâ community.
religion,âthen,âinvolvesânotâonlyâaâformalâsystemâofâworshipâbutâalsoâprescriptionsâ forâ socialâ relationships.â oneâ exampleâ isâ theâ mandateâ âDoâ untoâ othersâ asâ youâ wouldâ haveâthemâdoâuntoâyou.ââtermedâtheââGoldenârule,ââthisâinjunctionârepresentsâoneâofâ humankindâsâhighestâmoralâidealsâandâcanâbeâfoundâinâessenceâinâallâtheâgreatâreligionsâofâ theâworld:
Goodâpeopleâproceedâwhileâconsideringâthatâwhatâisâbestâforâothersâisâbestâforâ themselves.â(Hitopadesa,âhinduism)
Thouâshaltâloveâthyâneighborâasâthyself.â(Leviticusâ19:18,âJudaism)
Thereforeâallâthingsâwhatsoeverâyeâwouldâthatâmenâshouldâdoâtoâyou,âdoâyeâevenâ soâtoâthem.â(Matthewâ7:12,âchristianity)
hurtânotâothersâwithâthatâwhichâpainsâyourself.â(Udanavargaâ5:18,âBuddhism)
Whatâyouâdoânotâwantâdoneâtoâyourself,âdoânotâdoâtoâothers.â(Analectsâ15:23,â confucianism)
noâoneâofâyouâisâaâbelieverâuntilâheâlovesâforâhisâbrotherâwhatâheâlovesâforâhim- self.â(Traditions,âIslam)
althoughâ inspiring,â suchâ religiousâ idealsâ areâ veryâ generalâ andâ canâ beâ difficultâ toâ translateâ intoâ preciseâ policyâ injunctions.â religiousâ bodies,â nevertheless,â occasionallyâ articulateâpositionsâonâmoreâspecificâpolitical,âeducational,âeconomic,âandâmedicalâissues,â whichâhelpâmoldâpublicâopinionâonâmattersâ asâdiverseâasâ abortion,â theâenvironment,â nationalâdefense,âandâtheâethicsâofâscientificâresearch.âromanâcatholicism,âinâparticular,â hasâaârichâhistoryâofâformallyâapplyingâitsâcoreâvaluesâtoâtheâmoralâaspectsâofâindustrialââ relationsâandâeconomicâlife.âpopeâJohnâpaulâIIâsâencyclicalâCentesimus Annus,âtheânationalâ conferenceâofâcatholicâBishopsââpastoralâletterâEconomic Justice for Allâonâcatholicâsocialâ teachingâandâtheâU.S.âeconomy,âandâtheâpontificalâcouncilâforâSocialâcommunicationâsâ reportsâonâadvertisingâandâonâethicsâandâtheâInternetâstandâinâthatââtraditionââasâdoesâ popeâBenedictâXVIâsâ2007âcritiqueâofâtheâgrowingâtrendâforâcompaniesâtoârelyâonâshort- termâjobâcontracts,âwhichâinâhisâviewâunderminesâtheâstabilityâofâsocietyâandâpreventsâ youngâpeopleâfromâbuildingâfamilies.6
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12â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
MOrality neednât rest On religiOn
Manyâpeopleâbelieveâthatâmoralityâmustâbeâbasedâonâreligion,âeitherâinâtheâsenseâthatâ withoutâreligionâpeopleâwouldâhaveânoâincentiveâtoâbeâmoralâorâinâtheâsenseâthatâonlyâ religionâcanâprovideâmoralâguidance.âothersâcontendâthatâmoralityâisâbasedâonâtheâcom- mandsâofâGod.ânoneâofâtheseâclaimsâisâconvincing.
First,âalthoughâaâdesireâtoâavoidâhellâandâtoâgoâtoâheavenâmayâpromptâsomeâofâusâ toâactâmorally,âthisâisânotâtheâonlyâreasonâorâevenâtheâmostâcommonâreasonâthatâpeopleâ behaveâmorally.âoftenâweâactâmorallyâoutâofâhabitâorâjustâbecauseâthatâisâtheâkindâofâper- sonâweâare.âItâwouldâsimplyânotâoccurâtoâmostâofâusâtoâswipeâanâelderlyâladyâsâpurse,âandâ ifâtheâideaâdidâoccurâtoâus,âweâwouldnâtâdoâitâbecauseâsuchâanâactâsimplyâdoesnâtâfitâwithâ ourâpersonalâstandardsâorâwithâourâconceptâofâourselves.âWeâareâoftenâmotivatedâtoâdoâ whatâisâmorallyârightâoutâofâconcernâforâothersâorâjustâbecauseâitâisâright.âInâaddition,âtheâ approvalâofâourâpeers,âtheâneedâtoâappeaseâourâconscience,âandâtheâdesireâtoâavoidâearthlyâ punishmentâmayâallâmotivateâusâtoâactâmorally.âFurthermore,âatheistsâgenerallyâliveâlivesâ asâmoralâandâuprightâasâthoseâofâbelievers.
Second,âtheâmoralâinstructionsâofâtheâworldâsâgreatâreligionsâareâgeneralâandâimâprecise:â Theyâdoânotâ relieveâusâofâ theânecessityâofâengagingâ inâmoralâ reasoningâourselves.âForâ example,âtheâBibleâsays,ââThouâshallânotâkill.ââYetâchristiansâdisagreeâamongâthemselvesâ overâtheâmoralityâofâfightingâinâwars,âofâcapitalâpunishment,âofâkillingâinâself-defense,âofâ slaughteringâanimals,âofâabortionâandâeuthanasia,âandâofâallowingâforeignersâtoâdieâfromâ famineâbecauseâweâhaveânotâprovidedâthemâwithâasâmuchâfoodâasâweâmightâhave.âTheâ Bibleâdoesânotâprovideâunambiguousâsolutionsâtoâtheseâmoralâproblems,âsoâevenâbelieversâ mustâengageâinâmoralâphilosophyâifâtheyâareâtoâhaveâintelligentâanswers.âonâtheâotherâ hand,âthereâareâlotsâofâreasonsâforâbelievingâthat,âsay,âaâcold-bloodedâmurderâmotivatedâ byâgreedâisâimmoral.âYouâdonâtâhaveâtoâbelieveâinâaâreligionâtoâfigureâthatâout.
Third,âalthoughâsomeâtheologiansâhaveâadvocatedâtheâdivine command theoryâ thatâifâsomethingâisâwrongâ(likeâkillingâanâinnocentâpersonâforâfun),âthenâtheâonlyâreasonâ itâ isâwrongâ isâ thatâGodâ commandsâusânotâ toâ doâ itâmanyâ theologiansâ andâ certainlyâ mostâphilosophersâwouldârejectâthisâview.âTheyâwouldâcontendâthatâifâGodâcommandsâ humanâbeingsânotâtoâdoâsomething,âsuchâasâcommitârape,âitâisâbecauseâGodâseesâthatârapeâ isâwrong,âbutâitâisânotâGodâsâforbiddingârapeâthatâmakesâitâwrong.âTheâfactâthatârapeâisâ wrongâisâindependentâofâGodâsâdecrees.
MostâbelieversâthinkânotâonlyâthatâGodâgivesâusâmoralâinstructionsâorârulesâbutâalsoâ thatâGodâhasâmoralâreasonsâforâgivingâthemâtoâus.âaccordingâtoâtheâdivineâcommandâ theory,âthisâwouldâmakeânoâsense.âInâthisâview,âthereâisânoâreasonâthatâsomethingâisârightâ orâwrong,âotherâthanâtheâfactâthatâitâisâGodâsâwill.âallâbelievers,âofâcourse,âbelieveâthatâ GodâisâgoodâandâthatâGodâcommandsâusâtoâdoâwhatâisârightâandâforbidsâusâtoâdoâwhatâisâ wrong.âButâthisâdoesnâtâmean,âsayâcriticsâofâtheâdivineâcommandâtheory,âthatâitâisâGodâsâ sayingâsoâthatâmakesâaâthingâwrong,âanyâmoreâthanâitâisâyourâmotherâsâtellingâyouânotâtoâ stealâthatâmakesâitâwrongâtoâsteal.
allâthisâisâsimplyâtoâargueâthatâmoralityâisânotânecessarilyâbasedâonâreligionâinâanyâ ofâtheseâthreeâsenses.âThatâreligionâinfluencesâtheâmoralâstandardsâandâvaluesâofâmostâofâ usâisâbeyondâdoubt.âButâgivenâthatâreligionsâdifferâinâtheirâmoralâbeliefsâandâthatâevenâ membersâofâtheâsameâfaithâoftenâdisagreeâonâmoralâmatters,âyouâcannotâjustifyâaâmoralâ judgmentâsimplyâbyâappealingâtoâreligionâforâthatâwillâonlyâpersuadeâthoseâwhoâalreadyâ agreeâ withâ yourâ particularâ interpretationâ ofâ yourâ particularâ religion.â Besides,â mostâ âreligionsâholdâthatâhumanâreasonâisâcapableâofâunderstandingâwhatâisârightâandâwrong,
The idea that morality must be
based on religion can be interpreted in
three different ways, none of which is very
plausible.
summary Morality is not
necessarily based on religion. Although we draw our moral beliefs from many sources, for philosophers the issue
is whether those beliefs can be justified.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 13
soâitâisâhumanâreasonâtoâwhichâyouâwillâhaveâtoâappealâinâorderâtoâsupportâyourâethicalâ principlesâandâjudgments.
⢠⢠â˘
e Thical rel aT iV isM Someâpeopleâdoânotâbelieveâ thatâmoralityâboilsâdownâtoâ religionâbutâ ratherâ thatâ itâ isâ merelyâaâfunctionâofâwhatâaâparticularâsocietyâhappensâtoâbelieve.âThisâviewâisâcalledâethi- cal relativism, theâtheoryâthatâwhatâisârightâisâdeterminedâbyâwhatâaâcultureâorâsocietyâ saysâisâright.âWhatâisârightâinâoneâplaceâmayâbeâwrongâinâanother,âbecauseâtheâonlyâcrite- rionâforâdistinguishingârightâfromâwrongâandâsoâtheâonlyâethicalâstandardâforâjudgingâ anâactionâisâtheâmoralâsystemâofâtheâsocietyâinâwhichâtheâactâoccurs.
abortion,âforâexample,âisâcondemnedâasâimmoralâinâcatholicâIrelandâbutâisâprac- ticedâasâaâmorallyâneutralâformâofâbirthâcontrolâinâJapan.âaccordingâtoâtheâethicalârelativ- ist,âthen,âabortionâisâwrongâinâIrelandâbutâmorallyâpermissibleâinâJapan.âTheârelativistâisâ notâsayingâmerelyâthatâtheâIrishâbelieveâabortionâisâabominableâandâtheâJapaneseâdoânot;â thatâisâacknowledgedâbyâeveryone.ârather,âtheâethicalârelativistâcontendsâthatâabortionâ isâimmoralâinâIrelandâbecauseâtheâIrishâbelieveâitâtoâbeâimmoralâandâthatâitâisâmorallyâ permissibleâinâJapanâbecauseâtheâJapaneseâbelieveâitâtoâbeâso.âThus,âforâtheâethicalârelativ- istâthereâisânoâabsoluteâethicalâstandardâindependentâofâculturalâcontext,ânoâcriterionâofâ rightâandâwrongâbyâwhichâtoâjudgeâotherâthanâthatâofâparticularâsocieties.âInâshort,âwhatâ moralityârequiresâisârelativeâtoâsociety.
Thoseâwhoâendorseâethicalârelativismâpointâtoâtheâapparentâdiversityâofâhumanâvaluesâ andâtheâmultiformityâofâmoralâcodesâtoâsupportâtheirâcase.âFromâourâownâculturalâper- spective,âsomeâseeminglyâimmoralâmoralitiesâhaveâbeenâadopted.âpolygamy,âpedophilia,â stealing,âslavery,âinfanticide,âandâcannibalismâhaveâallâbeenâtoleratedâorâevenâencouragedâ byâtheâmoralâsystemâofâoneâsocietyâorâanother.âInâlightâofâthisâfact,âtheâethicalârelativistâ believesâthatâthereâcanâbeânoânon-ethnocentricâstandardâbyâwhichâtoâjudgeâactions.
Someâthinkersâbelieveâthatâtheâmoralâdifferencesâbetweenâsocietiesâareâsmallerâandâ lessâsignificantâthanâtheyâappear.âTheyâcontendâthatâvariationsâinâmoralâstandardsâreflectâ differingâfactualâbeliefsâandâdifferingâcircumstancesâratherâthanâfundamentalâdifferencesâinâ values.âButâsupposeâtheyâareâwrongâaboutâthisâmatter.âTheârelativistâsâconclusionâstillâdoesâ notâfollow.âaâdifferenceâofâopinionâamongâsocietiesâaboutârightâandâwrongânoâmoreâprovesâ thatânoneâofâtheâconflictingâbeliefsâisâtrueâorâsuperiorâtoâtheâothersâthanâtheâdiversityâofâ viewpointsâexpressedâinâaâcollegeâseminarâestablishesâthatâthereâisânoâtruth.âInâshort,âdisa- greementâinâethicalâmattersâdoesânotâimplyâthatâallâopinionsâareâequallyâcorrect.
Moreover,â ethicalâ relativismâhasâ someâunsatisfactoryâ implications.âFirst,â itâunder- minesâanyâmoralâcriticismâofâtheâpracticesâofâotherâsocietiesâasâlongâasâtheirâactionsâcon- formâtoâtheirâownâstandards.âWeâcannotâsayâthatâslaveryâinâaâslaveâsocietyâlikeâthatâofâtheâ americanâSouthâ160âyearsâagoâwasâimmoralâandâunjustâasâlongâasâthatâsocietyâheldâitâtoâ beâmorallyâpermissible.
Second,âandâcloselyârelated,âisâtheâfactâthatâforâtheârelativistâthereâisânoâsuchâthingâasâ ethicalâprogress.âalthoughâmoralitiesâmayâchange,âtheyâcannotâgetâbetterâorâworse.âThus,â weâcannotâsayâthatâmoralâstandardsâtodayâareâmoreâenlightenedâthanâwereâmoralâstand- ardsâinâtheâMiddleâages.
Ethical disagreement does not imply that all opinions are equally correct.
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14â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
Third,â fromâtheârelativistâsâpointâofâview,â itâmakesânoâsenseâforâpeopleâtoâcriticizeâ principlesâorâpracticesâ acceptedâbyâ theirâ ownâ society.âpeopleâ canâbeâ censuredâ forânotâ livingâupâtoâtheirâsocietyâsâmoralâcode,âbutâthatâisâall.âTheâmoralâcodeâitselfâcannotâbeâ criticizedâbecauseâwhateverâaâsocietyâtakesâtoâbeârightâreallyâisârightâforâit.âreformersâwhoâ identifyâinjusticesâinâtheirâsocietyâandâcampaignâagainstâthemâareâonlyâencouragingâpeo- pleâtoâbeâimmoralâthatâis,âtoâdepartâfromâtheâmoralâstandardsâofâtheirâsocietyâunlessâ orâuntilâtheâmajorityâofâtheâsocietyâagreesâwithâtheâreformers.âTheâminorityâcanâneverâbeâ rightâinâmoralâmatters;âtoâbeârightâitâmustâbecomeâtheâmajority.
Theâethicalârelativistâisâcorrectâtoâemphasizeâthatâinâviewingâotherâculturesâweâshouldâ keepâanâopenâmindâandânotâsimplyâdismissâalienâsocialâpracticesâonâtheâbasisâofâourâownâ culturalâprejudices.âButâtheârelativistâsâtheoryâofâmoralityâdoesnâtâholdâup.âTheâmoreâcare- fullyâweâexamineâit,âtheâlessâplausibleâitâbecomes.âThereâisânoâgoodâreasonâforâsayingâthatâ theâmajorityâviewâonâmoralâissuesâisâautomaticallyâright,âandâtheâbeliefâthatâitâisâauto- maticallyârightâhasâunacceptableâconsequences.
relativisM and the âgaMeâ Of Business
InâhisâessayââIsâBusinessâBluffingâethical?ââalbertâcarrâarguesâthatâbusiness,âasâpracticedâ byâ individualsâ asâwellâ asâbyâ corporations,âhasâ theâ impersonalâ characterâofâ aâgameâaâ gameâ thatâ demandsâ bothâ specialâ strategyâ andâ anâ understandingâ ofâ itsâ specialâ ethicalâ standards.7âBusinessâhasâ itsâownânormsâandârulesâ thatâdifferâ fromâthoseâofâ theârestâofâ society.âThus,âaccordingâtoâcarr,âaânumberâofâthingsâthatâweânormallyâthinkâofâasâwrongâ areâreallyâpermissibleâinâaâbusinessâcontext.âhisâexamplesâincludeâconsciousâmisstatementâ andâconcealmentâofâpertinentâfactsâinânegotiation,âlyingâaboutâoneâsâageâonâaârĂŠsumĂŠ,â deceptiveâpackaging,âautomobileâcompaniesââneglectâofâcarâsafety,âandâutilityâcompaniesââ manipulationâofâregulatorsâandâoverchargingâofâelectricityâusers.âheâdrawsâanâanalogyâ withâpoker:
pokerâsâownâbrandâofâethicsâisâdifferentâfromâtheâethicalâidealsâofâcivilizedâhumanârela- tionships.âTheâgameâcallsâforâdistrustâofâtheâotherâfellow.âItâignoresâtheâclaimâofâfriend- ship.â cunningâ deceptionâ andâ concealmentâ ofâ oneâsâ strengthâ andâ intentions,â notâ kindnessâ andâopenheartedness,â areâ vitalâ inâpoker.ânoâoneâ thinksâ anyâ theâworseâofâ pokerâonâthatâaccount.âandânoâoneâshouldâthinkâanyâtheâworseâofâtheâgameâofâbusinessâ becauseâitsâstandardsâofârightâandâwrongâdifferâfromâtheâprevailingâtraditionsâofâmoral- ityâinâourâsociety.8
Whatâcarrâisâdefendingâhereâisâaâkindâofâethicalârelativism:âBusinessâhasâitsâownâmoralâ standards,âandâbusinessâactionsâshouldâbeâevaluatedâonlyâbyâthoseâstandards.
oneâ canâ argueâ whetherâ carrâ hasâ accuratelyâ identifiedâ theâ implicitâ rulesâ ofâ theâ businessâworldâ(forâexample,â isâmisrepresentationâonâoneâsârĂŠsumĂŠâreallyâaâpermissibleâ moveâinâtheâbusinessâgame?),âbutâletâsâputâthatâissueâaside.âTheâbasicâquestionâisâwhetherâ businessâisâaâseparateâworldâtoâwhichâordinaryâmoralâstandardsâdonâtâapply.âcarrâsâthesisâ assumesâthatâanyâspecialâactivityâfollowingâitsâownârulesâisâexemptâfromâexternalâmoralâ evaluation,âbutâasâaâgeneralâpropositionâthisâ isâunacceptable.âTheâMafia,â forâexample,â hasâanâelaborateâcodeâofâconduct,âacceptedâbyâtheâmembersâofâtheârivalââfamilies.ââForâ them,âgunningâdownâaâcompetitorâorâterrorizingâaâlocalâshopkeeperâmayâbeâaâstrategicâ moveâinâaâcompetitiveâenvironment.âYetâweârightlyârefuseâtoâsayâthatâgangstersâcannotâ beâcriticizedâforâfollowingâtheirâownâstandards.ânormalâbusinessâactivityâisâaâworldâawayâ fromâgangsterism,âbutâtheâpointâstillâholds.âanyâspecializedâactivityâorâpracticeâwillâhave
summary Ethical relativism is the theory that right and
wrong are determined by what oneâs society
says is right and wrong. There are many
problems with this theory. Also dubious is
the notion that business has its own
morality, divorced from ordinary ideas of right
and wrong.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 15
itsâownâdistinctiveârulesâandâprocedures,âbutâtheâmoralityâofâthoseârulesâandâproceduresâ canâstillâbeâevaluated.
Moreover,â carrâsâ pokerâ analogyâ isâ itselfâ weak.â Forâ oneâ thing,â businessâ activityâ canâ affectâ othersâsuchâ asâ consumersâwhoâhaveânotâ consciouslyâ andâ freelyâ chosenâ toâplayâ theââgame.ââBusinessâisâindeedâanâactivityâinvolvingâdistinctiveârulesâandâcustomaryâwaysâ ofâdoingâthings,âbutâitâisânotâreallyâaâgame.âItâisâtheâeconomicâbasisâofâourâsociety,âandâweâ allâhaveâanâinterestâinâtheâgoalsâofâbusinessâ(inâproductivityâandâconsumerâsatisfaction,âforâ instance)âandâinâtheârulesâbusinessâfollows.âWhyâshouldâtheseâbeâexemptâfromâpublicâevalu- ationâandâassessment?âLaterâchaptersâreturnâtoâtheâquestionâofâwhatâtheseâgoalsâandârulesâ shouldâbe.âButâtoâtakeâoneâsimpleâpoint,ânoteâthatâaâbusiness/economicâsystemâthatâpermits,â encourages,âorâtoleratesâdeceptionâwillâbeâlessâefficientâ(thatâis,âworkâlessâwell)âthanâoneâinâ whichâtheâparticipantsâhaveâfullerâknowledgeâofâtheâgoodsâandâservicesâbeingâexchanged.
Inâsum,âbyâdivorcingâbusinessâ fromâmorality,âcarrâmisrepresentsâboth.âheâincor- rectlyâtreatsâtheâstandardsâandârulesâofâeverydayâbusinessâactivityâasâifâtheyâhadânothingâtoâ doâwithâtheâstandardsâandârulesâofâordinaryâmorality,âandâheâtreatsâmoralityâasâsomethingâ thatâweâgiveâlipâserviceâtoâonâSundaysâbutâthatâotherwiseâhasânoâinfluenceâonâourâlives.
⢠⢠â˘
haV iNg Mor al Pr iNciPles atâsomeâtimeâinâtheirâlivesâmostâpeopleâpauseâtoâreflectâonâtheirâownâmoralâprinciplesâandâ onâtheâpracticalâimplicationsâofâthoseâprinciples,âandâtheyâsometimesâthinkâaboutâwhatâ principlesâpeopleâ shouldâhaveâorâwhichâmoralâ standardsâ canâbeâbestâ justified.â (Moralâ philosophersâthemselvesâhaveâdefendedâdifferentâmoralâstandards;âchapterâ2âdiscussesâ theseâvariousâtheories.)âWhenâaâpersonâacceptsâaâmoralâprinciple,âwhenâthatâprincipleâisâ partâofâhisâorâherâpersonalâmoralâcode,âthenânaturallyâtheâpersonâbelievesâtheâprincipleâisâ importantâandâwellâjustified.âButâthereâisâmoreâtoâmoralâprinciplesâthanâthat,âasâtheâphi- losopherârichardâBrandtâemphasized.âWhenâaâprincipleâisâpartâofâaâpersonâsâmoralâcode,â thatâpersonâisâstronglyâmotivatedâtoâactâasâtheâprincipleârequiresâandâtoâavoidâactingâinâ waysâthatâconflictâwithâtheâprinciple.âTheâpersonâwillâtendâtoâfeelâguiltyâwhenâhisâorâherâ ownâconductâviolatesâthatâprincipleâandâtoâdisapproveâofâothersâwhoseâbehaviorâconflictsâ withâit.âLikewise,âtheâpersonâwillâtendâtoâholdâinâesteemâthoseâwhoseâconductâshowsâanâ abundanceâofâtheâmotivationârequiredâbyâtheâprinciple.9
otherâphilosophersâhave,âinâdifferentâways,âreinforcedâBrandtâsâpoint.âtoâacceptâaâ moralâprincipleâisânotâaâpurelyâintellectualâactâlikeâacceptingâaâscientificâhypothesisâorâ aâmathematicalâtheorem.ârather,âitâalsoâinvolvesâaâdesireâtoâfollowâthatâprincipleâforâitsâ ownâsake,âtheâlikelihoodâofâfeelingâguiltyâaboutânotâdoingâso,âandâaâtendencyâtoâevalu- ateâtheâconductâofâothersâaccordingâtoâtheâprincipleâinâquestion.âWeâwouldâfindâitâveryâ strange,âforâexample,â ifâSallyâclaimedâtoâbeâmorallyâopposedâtoâcrueltyâtoâanimalsâyetâ abusedâherâownâpetsâandâ feltânoâ inclinationâ toâprotestâwhenâsomeâruffiansâdownâtheâ streetâsetâaâcatâonâfire.
cOnscience
peopleâcan,âandâunfortunatelyâsometimesâdo,âgoâagainstâtheirâmoralâprinciples,âbutâweâ wouldâdoubtâ thatâ theyâ sincerelyâheldâ theâprincipleâ inâquestionâ ifâ violatingâ itâdidânot
By divorcing business from morality, Carr misrepresents both.
Accepting a moral principle is not a purely intellectual act like accepting a scientific hypothesis or a mathematical theorem.
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16â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
botherâ theirâconscience.âWeâhaveâallâ feltâ theâpangsâofâconscience,âbutâwhatâexactlyâ isâ conscienceâandâhowâreliableâaâguideâisâit?âourâconscience,âofâcourse,âisânotâliterallyâaâlittleâ voiceâinsideâus.âtoâoversimplifyâaâcomplexâpieceâofâdevelopmentalâpsychology,âourâcon- scienceâevolvedâasâweâinternalizedâtheâmoralâinstructionsâofâtheâparentsâorâotherâauthorityâ figuresâwhoâraisedâusâasâchildren.
Whenâyouâwereâveryâyoung,âyouâwereâprobablyâtoldâtoâtellâtheâtruthâandâtoâreturnâ somethingâyouâfilchedâtoâitsâproperâowner.âIfâyouâwereâcaughtâlyingâorâbeingâdishon- est,â youâ wereâ probablyâ punishedâscolded,â spanked,â sentâ toâ bedâ withoutâ dinner,â orâ deniedâaâprivilege.âInâcontrast,âtruthâtellingâandâkindnessâtoâyourâsiblingsâwereâprobablyâ rewardedâwithâapproval,âpraise,âmaybeâevenâhugsâorâcandy.âSeekingârewardâandâavoid- ingâ punishmentâ motivateâ smallâ childrenâ toâ doâ whatâ isâ expectedâ ofâ them.â Gradually,â childrenâcomeâtoâinternalizeâthoseâparentalâcommands.âThus,âtheyâfeelâvaguelyâthatâtheirâ parentsâknowâwhatâtheyâareâdoingâevenâwhenâtheâparentsâareânotâaround.âWhenâchildrenâ doâ somethingâ forbidden,â theyâ experienceâ theâ sameâ feelingsâ asâwhenâ scoldedâbyâ theirâ parentsâtheâfirstâstirringsâofâguilt.âByâtheâsameâtoken,âevenâinâtheâabsenceâofâexplicitâ parentalâreward,âchildrenâfeelâaâsenseâofâself-approvalâaboutâhavingâdoneâwhatâtheyâwereâ supposedâtoâhaveâdone.
asâ weâ growâ older,â ofâ course,â ourâ motivationsâ areâ notâ soâ simpleâ andâ ourâ self-â understandingâisâgreater.âWeâareâableâtoâreflectâonâandâunderstandâtheâmoralâlessonsâweâ wereâtaught,âasâwellâasâtoârefineâandâmodifyâthoseâprinciples.âasâadultsâweâareâmorallyâ independentâagents.âYetâhoweverâmuchâourâconscienceâhasâevolvedâandâhoweverâmuchâ ourâadultâmoralâcodeâdiffersâfromâtheâmoralâperspectiveâofâourâchildhood,âthoseâpangsâofâ guiltâweâoccasionallyâfeelâstillâstemâfromâthatâearlyâinternalizationâofâparentalâdemands.
the liMits Of cOnscience
howâreliableâaâguideâisâconscience?âpeopleâoftenâsay,ââFollowâyourâconscienceââorââYouâ shouldâ neverâ goâ againstâ yourâ conscience.ââ Suchâ adviceâ isâ notâ veryâ helpful,â however.â Indeed,âitâcanâsometimesâbeâbadâadvice.âFirst,âwhenâweâareâgenuinelyâperplexedâaboutâ whatâweâoughtâtoâdo,âweâareâtryingâtoâfigureâoutâwhatâourâconscienceâoughtâtoâbeâsayingâ toâus.âWhenâitâisânotâpossibleâtoâdoâboth,âshouldâweâkeepâourâpromiseâtoâaâcolleagueâorâ comeâtoâtheâaidâofâanâoldâfriend?âtoâbeâtoldâthatâweâshouldâfollowâourâconscienceâisânoâ helpâatâall.
Second,â itâmayânotâalwaysâbeâgoodâforâusâtoâfollowâourâconscience.âItâallâdependsâ onâwhatâourâconscienceâsays.âonâtheâoneâhand,âsometimesâpeopleâsâconsciencesâdoânotâ botherâthemâwhenâtheyâshouldâperhapsâbecauseâtheyâdidnâtâthinkâthroughâtheâimpli- cationsâofâwhatâtheyâwereâdoingâorâperhapsâbecauseâtheyâfailedâtoâinternalizeâstronglyâ enoughâ theâ appropriateâ moralâ principles.â onâ theâ otherâ hand,â aâ personâsâ conscienceâ mightâdisturbâtheâpersonâaboutâsomethingâthatâisâperfectlyâallâright.
considerâanâepisodeâinâchapterâ16âofâMarkâtwainâsâThe Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.âhuckâhasâtakenâoffâdownâtheâMississippiâonâaâraftâwithâhisâfriend,âtheârunawayâ slaveâJim,âbutâasâtheyâgetânearerâtoâtheâplaceâwhereâJimâwillâbecomeâlegallyâfree,âhuckâ startsâfeelingâguiltyâaboutâhelpingâhimârunâaway:
Itâhadnâtâeverâcomeâhomeâtoâmeâbefore,âwhatâthisâthingâwasâthatâIâwasâdoing.âButânowâ itâdid;âandâitâstayedâwithâme,âandâscorchedâmeâmoreâandâmore.âIâtriedâtoâmakeâoutâtoâ myselfâthatâIâwarnâtâtoâblame,âbecauseâIâdidnâtârunâJimâoffâfromâhisârightfulâowner;âbutâ itâwarnâtânoâuse,âconscienceâupâandâsays,âeveryâtime:ââButâyouâknowedâheâwasârunning
Telling someone to âfollow your
conscienceâ is not very helpful, and
sometimes it can be bad advice.
summary Accepting a moral principle involves a
motivation to conform oneâs conduct to that principle. Violating the
principle will bother oneâs conscience, but
conscience is not a perfectly reliable guide
to right and wrong.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 17
forâhisâfreedom,âandâyouâcouldâaâpaddledâashoreâandâtoldâsomebody.ââThatâwasâsoââ Iâcouldnâtâgetâaroundâthat,ânoâway.âThatâwasâwhereâitâpinched.âconscienceâsaysâtoâme:â âWhatâhadâpoorâMissâWatsonâdoneâtoâyou,âthatâyouâcouldâseeâherâniggerâgoâoffârightâ underâyourâeyesâandâneverâsayâoneâsingleâword?âWhatâdidâthatâpoorâoldâwomanâdoâtoâ you,âthatâyouâcouldâtreatâherâsoâmean?â.â.â.âââIâgotâtoâfeelingâsoâmeanâandâmiserableââ IâmostâwishedâIâwasâdead.
hereâhuckâisâ feelingâguiltyâaboutâdoingâwhatâweâwouldâallâagreeâ isâtheâmorallyârightâ thingâtoâdo.âButâhuckâisâonlyâaâboy,âandâhisâpangsâofâconscienceâreflectâtheâprinciplesâ thatâheâhasâpickedâupâuncriticallyâfromâtheâslave-owningâsocietyâaroundâhim.âUnableâtoâ thinkâindependentlyâaboutâmattersâofârightâandâwrong,âhuckâinâtheâendâdecidesâtoâdisre- gardâhisâconscience.âheâfollowsâhisâinstinctsâandâsticksâbyâhisâfriendâJim.
Theâpointâhereâisânotâthatâyouâshouldâignoreâyourâconscienceâbutâthatâtheâvoiceâofâ conscienceâisâitselfâsomethingâthatâcanâbeâcriticallyâexamined.âaâpangâofâconscienceâisâlikeâ aâwarning.âWhenâyouâfeelâone,âyouâshouldâdefinitelyâstopâandâreflectâonâtheârightnessâofâ whatâyouâareâdoing.âButâyouâcannotâjustifyâyourâactionsâsimplyâbyâsayingâyouâwereâfol- lowingâyourâconscience.âterribleâdeedsâhaveâoccasionallyâbeenâcommittedâinâtheânameâofâ conscience.
MOral PrinciPles and self-interest
Sometimesâdoingâwhatâyouâbelieveâwouldâbeâmorallyârightâandâdoingâwhatâwouldâbestâ satisfyâyourâownâinterestsâmayâbeâtwoâdifferentâthings.âImagineâthatâyouâareâinâyourâcarâ hurryingâalongâaâquietâroad,âtryingâhardâtoâgetâtoâanâimportantâfootballâgameâinâtimeâ toâseeâtheâkickoff.âYouâpassâanâacquaintanceâwhoâisâhavingâcarâtrouble.âheâdoesnâtârec- ognizeâyou.âasâaâdedicatedâfan,âyouâwouldâmuchâpreferâtoâkeepâonâgoingâthanâtoâstopâ andâhelpâhim,âthusâmissingâatâleastâpartâofâtheâgame.âalthoughâyouâmightârationalizeâ thatâsomeoneâelseâwillâeventuallyâcomeâalongâandâhelpâhimâoutâifâyouâdonât,âdeepâdownâ youâknowâthatâyouâreallyâoughtâtoâstop.âself-interest,âhowever,âseemsâtoâsay,ââKeepâ going.â
considerâanotherâexample.âYouâhaveâappliedâforâaânewâjob,âandâifâyouâlandâit,âitâwillâ beâanâenormousâbreakâforâyou.âItâisâexactlyâtheâkindâofâpositionâyouâwantâandâhaveâbeenâ tryingâtoâgetâforâsomeâtime.âItâpaysâwellâandâwillâsettleâyouâintoâaâdesirableâcareerâforâtheâ restâofâyourâlife.âTheâcompetitionâhasâcomeâdownâtoâyouâandâoneâotherâperson,âandâyouâ believeâcorrectlyâthatâsheâhasâaâslightâedgeâonâyou.ânowâimagineâthatâyouâcouldâspreadâaâ nastyârumorâaboutâherâthatâwouldâguaranteeâthatâsheâwouldnâtâgetâtheâjob,âandâthatâyouâ couldâdoâthisâinâaâwayâthatâwouldnâtâcomeâbackâtoâyou.âpresumably,âcirculatingâthisâlieâ wouldâviolateâyourâmoralâcode,âbutâdoingâsoâwouldâclearlyâbenefitâyou.
Someâ peopleâ argueâ thatâ moralâ actionâ andâ self-interestâ canâ neverâ reallyâ conflict.â althoughâsomeâphilosophersâhaveâgoneâ toâgreatâ lengthsâ toâ tryâ toâproveâ this,â theyâareâ almostâcertainlyâmistaken.âTheyâmaintainâthatâifâyouâdoâtheâwrongâthing,âthenâyouâwillâ beâcaught,âyourâconscienceâwillâbotherâyou,âorâinâsomeâwayââwhatâgoesâaroundâcomesâ around,ââsoâthatâyourâmisdeedâwillâcomeâbackâtoâhauntâyou.âThisâisâoftenâcorrect.âButâ unfortunateâasâitâmayâbe,âsometimesâviewedâjustâinâtermsâofâpersonalâself-interestâitâ mayâpayâoffâforâyouâtoâdoâwhatâyouâknowâtoâbeâwrong.âpeopleâsometimesâgetâawayâwithâ theirâwrongdoings,âandâifâtheirâconscienceâbothersâthemâatâall,âitâmayânotâbotherâthemâ veryâmuch.âtoâbelieveâotherwiseânotâonlyâisâwishfulâthinkingâbutâalsoâshowsâaâlackâofâ understandingâofâmorality.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
18â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
Moralityâ servesâ toâ restrainâ ourâ purelyâ self-interestedâ desiresâ soâ weâ canâ allâ liveâ together.âTheâmoralâstandardsâofâaâsocietyâprovideâtheâbasicâguidelinesâforâcooperativeâ socialâexistenceâandâallowâconflictsâtoâbeâresolvedâbyâanâappealâtoâsharedâprinciplesâofâjus- tification.âIfâourâinterestsâneverâcameâintoâconflictâthatâis,âifâitâwereâneverâadvantageousâ forâoneâpersonâtoâdeceiveâorâcheatâanotherâthenâthereâwouldâbeâlittleâneedâforâmorality.â Weâwouldâalreadyâbeâinâheaven.âBothâaâsystemâofâlawâthatâpunishesâpeopleâforâhurtingâ othersâandâaâsystemâofâmoralityâthatâencouragesâpeopleâtoârefrainâfromâpursuingâtheirâ self-interestâatâgreatâexpenseâtoâothersâhelpâmakeâsocialâexistenceâpossible.
Usually,â followingâ ourâ moralâ principlesâ isâ inâ ourâ bestâ interest.â Thisâ ideaâ isâ par- ticularlyâworthânotingâinâtheâbusinessâcontext.ârecently,âaânumberâofâbusinessâtheoristsâ haveâ arguedâpersuasivelyânotâonlyâ thatâmoralâbehaviorâ isâ consistentâwithâprofitabilityâ butâalsoâthatâtheâmostâmorallyâresponsibleâcompaniesâareâamongâtheâmostâprofitable.10â apparently,â respectingâ theâ rightsâ ofâ employees,â treatingâ suppliersâ fairly,â andâ beingâ straightforwardâwithâcustomersâpayâoff.
Butânoticeâoneâ thing.â Ifâyouâdoâ theâ rightâ thingâonlyâbecauseâyouâ thinkâyouâwillâ profitâfromâit,âyouâareânotâreallyâmotivatedâbyâmoralâconcerns.âhavingâaâmoralâprincipleâ involvesâhavingâaâdesireâtoâfollowâtheâprincipleâforâitsâownâsakeâsimplyâbecauseâitâisâtheâ rightâthingâtoâdo.âIfâyouâdoâtheârightâthingâonlyâbecauseâyouâbelieveâitâwillâpayâoff,âyouâ mightâjustâasâeasilyânotâdoâitâifâitâlooksâasâifâitâisânotâgoingâtoâpayâoff.
Inâaddition,âthereâisânoâguaranteeâthatâmoralâbehaviorâwillâalwaysâbenefitâaâpersonâ inâstrictlyâselfishâterms.âasâarguedâearlier,âthereâwillâbeâexceptions.âFromâtheâmoralâpointâ ofâview,âyouâoughtâtoâstopâandâhelpâyourâacquaintance,âandâyouâshouldnâtâlieâaboutâcom- petitors.âFromâtheâselfishâpointâofâview,âyouâshouldâdoâexactlyâtheâopposite.âShouldâyouâ followâyourâself-interestâorâyourâmoralâprinciples?âThereâsânoâfinalâanswerâtoâthisâques- tion.âFromâtheâmoralâpointâofâview,âyouâshould,âofâcourse,âfollowâyourâmoralâprinciples.â Butâfromâtheâselfishâpointâofâview,âyouâshouldâlookâoutâsolelyâforâânumberâone.â
Whichâoptionâyouâchooseâwillâdependâonâtheâstrengthâofâyourâself-interestedâorâself- regardingâdesiresâinâcomparisonâwithâtheâstrengthâofâyourâother-regardingâdesiresâ(thatâ is,âyourâmoralâmotivationsâandâyourâconcernâforâothers).âInâotherâwords,âyourâchoiceâwillâ dependâonâyourâcharacter,âonâtheâkindâofâpersonâyouâare,âwhichâdependsâinâpartâonâhowâ youâwereâraised.âaâpersonâwhoâisâbasicallyâselfishâwillâpassâbyâtheâacquaintanceâinâdistressâ andâwillâspreadâtheârumor,âwhereasâsomeoneâwhoâhasâaâstrongerâconcernâforâothers,âorâaâ strongerâdesireâtoâdoâwhatâisârightâjustâbecauseâitâisâright,âwillânot.
althoughâitâmayâbeâimpossibleâtoâproveâtoâselfishâpeopleâthatâtheyâshouldânotâdoâtheâ thingâthatâbestâadvancesâtheirâself-interestâ(becauseâifâtheyâareâselfish,âthenâthatâisâallâtheyâ careâabout),âthereâareâconsiderationsâthatâsuggestâitâisânotâinâaâoneâsâoverallâself-interestâ toâbeâ aâ selfishâperson.âpeopleâwhoâ areâ exclusivelyâ concernedâwithâ theirâ ownâ interestsâ tendâtoâhaveâlessâhappyâandâlessâsatisfyingâlivesâthanâthoseâwhoseâdesiresâextendâbeyondâ themselves.âThisâisâusuallyâcalledâtheâparadox of hedonism,âbutâitâmightâequallyâwellâ beâdubbedâtheââparadoxâofâselfishness.ââIndividualsâwhoâcareâonlyâaboutâtheirâownâhap- pinessâwillâgenerallyâbeâlessâhappyâthanâthoseâwhoâcareâaboutâothers.âMoreover,âpeopleâ oftenâfindâgreaterâsatisfactionâinâaâlifeâlivedâaccordingâtoâmoralâprinciple,âandâinâbeingâ theâkindâofâpersonâthatâentails,âthanâinâaâlifeâdevotedâsolelyâtoâself-gratification.âThus,âorâ soâmanyâphilosophersâhaveâargued,âpeopleâhaveâself-interestedâreasonsânotâtoâbeâsoâself- interested.âhowâdoâselfishâpeopleâmakeâthemselvesâlessâso?ânotâovernight,âobviously,âbutâ byâinvolvingâthemselvesâinâtheâconcernsâandâcaresâofâothers,âtheyâcanâinâtimeâcomeâtoâ careâsincerelyâaboutâthoseâpersons.
Morality restrains our self-interested
desires. A societyâs moral standards
allow conflicts to be resolved by an
appeal to shared principles of justification.
summary Part of the point of morality is to make
social existence possible by restraining
self-interested behavior. Sometimes doing what is morally right can conflict with
oneâs personal interests. In general,
though, following your moral principles will enable you to live a more satisfying life.
When morality and self-interest conflict, what you choose to
do will depend on the kind of person
you are.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 19
⢠⢠â˘
Mor al iT y a Nd PersoNal Val ues Itâisâhelpfulâtoâdistinguishâbetweenâmoralityâinâaânarrowâsenseâandâmoralityâinâaâbroadâ sense.âInâaânarrowâsense,âmoralityâisâtheâmoralâcodeâofâanâindividualâorâaâsocietyâ(inso- farâasâtheâmoralâcodesâofâtheâindividualsâmakingâupâthatâsocietyâoverlap).âalthoughâtheâ principlesâthatâconstituteâourâcodeâmayânotâbeâexplicitlyâformulated,âasâlawsâare,âtheyâdoâ guideâusâinâourâconduct.âTheyâfunctionâasâinternalâmonitorsâofâourâownâbehaviorâandâ asâaâbasisâforâassessingâtheâactionsâofâothers.âmorality in the narrow senseâconcernsâtheâ principlesâthatâdoâorâshouldâregulateâpeopleâsâconductâandârelationsâwithâothers.âTheseâ principlesâcanâbeâdebated,âhowever.â(take,âforâexample,âJohnâStuartâMillâsâcontentionâ thatâsocietyâoughtânotâtoâ interfereâwithâpeopleâsâ libertyâwhenâtheirâactionsâaffectâonlyâ themselves.)âandâaâlargeâpartâofâmoralâphilosophyâinvolvesâassessingârivalâmoralâprinci- ples.âThisâdiscussionâisâpartâofâtheâongoingâdevelopmentâinâourâmoralâculture.âWhatâisâatâ stakeâareâtheâbasicâstandardsâthatâoughtâtoâgovernâourâbehaviorâthatâis,âtheâfundamentalâ frameworkâorâgroundârulesâthatâmakeâcoexistenceâpossible.âIfâthereâwereânotâalreadyâfairlyâ widespreadâagreementâaboutâtheseâprinciples,âourâsocialâorderâwouldânotâbeâsustainable.
Inâadditionâweâcanâtalkâaboutâourâmorality in the broad sense,âmeaningânotâjustâ theâprinciplesâofâconductâthatâweâembraceâbutâalsoâtheâvalues,âideals,âandâaspirationsâthatâ shapeâourâlives.âManyâdifferentâwaysâofâlivingâourâlivesâwouldâmeetâourâbasicâmoralâobli- gations.âTheâtypeâofâlifeâeachâofâusâseeksâtoâliveâreflectsâourâindividualâvaluesâwhetherâ followingâaâprofession,âdevotingâourselvesâtoâcommunityâservice,âraisingâaâfamily,âseek- ingâsolitude,âpursuingâscientificâtruth,âstrivingâforâathleticâexcellence,âamassingâpoliticalâ power,âcultivatingâglamorousâpeopleâasâfriends,âorâsomeâcombinationâofâtheseâandâmanyâ otherâpossibleâwaysâofâliving.âTheâlifeâthatâeachâofâusâforgesâandâtheâwayâweâunderstandâ thatâlifeâareâpartâofâourâmoralityâinâtheâbroadâsenseâofâtheâterm.
Itâ isâ importantâ toâ bearâ thisâ inâ mindâ throughoutâ yourâ studyâ ofâ businessâ ethics.â althoughâthisâbookâsâmainâconcernâisâwithâtheâprinciplesâthatâoughtâtoâgovernâconductâ inâcertainâbusiness-typeâsituationsâforâexample,âwhetherâaâhiringâofficerâmayâtakeâanâ applicantâsâ raceâ intoâaccount,âwhetherâ insiderâ tradingâ isâwrong,âorâwhetherâ corporateâ briberyâisâpermissibleâinâcountriesâwhereâpeopleâturnâaâblindâeyeâtoâitâyourâchoicesâinâ theâbusinessâworldâwillâalsoâreflectâyourâotherâvaluesâandâidealsâor,âinâotherâwords,âtheâ kindâofâpersonâyouâareâstrivingâtoâbe.âWhatâsortâofâidealâdoâyouâhaveâofâyourselfâasâaâbusi- nessperson?âhowâmuchâweightâdoâyouâputâonâprofitability,âforâinstance,âasâagainstâtheâ qualityâofâyourâproductâorâtheâsociallyâbeneficialâcharacterâofâyourâservice?
Theâdecisionsâyouâmakeâinâyourâcareerâandâmuchâofâtheâwayâyouâshapeâyourâwork- ingâlifeâwillâdependânotâonlyâonâyourâmoralâcodeâbutâalsoâonâtheâunderstandingâyouâhaveâ ofâyourselfâinâcertainârolesâandârelationships.âYourâmoralityâinâtheâsenseâofâyourâideals,â values,âandâaspirationsâinvolves,âamongâotherâ things,âyourâunderstandingâofâhumanâ nature,âtradition,âandâsociety;âofâoneâsâproperârelationshipâtoâtheânaturalâenvironment;â andâofâanâindividualâsâplaceâinâtheâcosmos.âprofessionalsâinâvariousâfields,âforâexample,â willâinvariablyâbeâguidedânotâjustâbyârulesâbutâalsoâbyâtheirâunderstandingâofâwhatâbeingâ aâprofessionalâinvolves,âandâaâbusinesspersonâsâconceptionâofâtheâidealâorâmodelârelation- shipâtoâhaveâwithâclientsâwillâgreatlyâinfluenceâhisâorâherâday-to-dayâconduct.
Thereâisâmoreâtoâlivingâaâmorallyâgoodâlife,âofâcourse,âthanâbeingâaâgoodâbusinesspersonâ orâbeingâgoodâatâyourâjob,âasâaristotleâ(384â322âbce)âarguedâlongâago.âheâunderscoredâ theânecessityâofâourâtryingâtoâachieveâvirtueâorâexcellence,ânotâjustâinâsomeâparticularâfield
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20â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
ofâendeavor,âbutâalsoâasâhumanâbeings.âaristotleâthoughtâthatâthingsâhaveâfunctions.âTheâ functionâofâaâpiano,âforâinstance,âisâtoâmakeâcertainâsounds,âandâaâpianoâthatâperformsâthisâ functionâwellâisâaâgoodâorâexcellentâpiano.âLikewise,âweâhaveâanâideaâofâwhatâitâisâforâaâper- sonâtoâbeâanâexcellentâathlete,âanâexcellentâmanager,âorâanâexcellentâprofessorâitâisâtoâdoâ wellâtheâtypesâofâthingsâthatâathletes,âmanagers,âorâprofessorsâareâsupposedâtoâdo.
Butâaristotleâalsoâthoughtâthat,â justâasâthereâisâanâidealâofâexcellenceâforâanyâpar- ticularâ craftâorâoccupation,â similarlyâ thereâmustâbeâanâexcellenceâ thatâweâcanâachieveâ simplyâasâhumanâbeings.âheâbelievedâthatâweâcanâliveâourâlivesâasâaâwholeâinâsuchâaâwayâ thatâtheyâcanâbeâjudgedânotâjustâasâexcellentâinâthisârespectâorâinâthatâoccupationâbutâasâ excellent,âperiod.âaristotleâthoughtâthatâonlyâwhenâweâdevelopâourâtrulyâhumanâcapaci- tiesâsufficientlyâtoâachieveâthisâhumanâexcellenceâwillâweâhaveâlivesâblessedâwithâhappi- ness.âphilosophersâsinceâaristotleâsâtimeâhaveâbeenâskepticalâofâhisâapparentâbeliefâthatâ thisâhumanâexcellenceâwouldâcomeâinâjustâoneâform,âbutâmanyâwouldâunderscoreâtheâ importanceâofâdevelopingâourâvariousâpotentialâcapacitiesâandâstrivingâtoâachieveâaâkindâ ofâexcellenceâinâourâlives.âhowâweâunderstandâthisâexcellenceâisâaâfunctionâofâourâvalues,â ideals,âandâworldviewâourâmoralityâinâaâbroadâsense.
⢠⢠â˘
iNd iV idual iNTegr iT y a Nd resPoNsib il i T y previousâsectionsâdiscussedâwhatâitâisâforâaâpersonâtoâhaveâaâmoralâcode,âasâwellâasâtheâ sometimesâconflictingâpullsâofâmoralâconscienceâandâself-interest.âInâaddition,âweâhaveâ seenâthatâpeopleâhaveâvaluesâandâidealsâaboveâandâbeyondâtheirâmoralâprinciples,ânar- rowlyâunderstood,âthatâalsoâinfluenceâtheâlivesâtheyâlead.âandâweâhaveâseenâtheâimpor- tanceâofâreflectingâcriticallyâonâbothâmoralâprinciplesâandâourâidealsâandâvaluesâasâweâseekâ toâliveâmorallyâgoodâandâworthwhileâlives.ânoneâofâus,âhowever,âlivesâinâaâvacuum,âandâ socialâpressuresâofâvariousâsortsâalwaysâaffectâus.âSometimesâtheseâpressuresâmakeâitâdiffi- cultâtoâstickâwithâourâprinciplesâandâtoâbeâtheâkindâofâpersonâweâwishâtoâbe.âcorporationsâ areâaâparticularlyârelevantâexampleâofâanâenvironmentâthatâcanâpotentiallyâdamageâindi- vidualâintegrityâandâresponsibility.
OrganizatiOnal nOrMs
oneâ ofâ theâ majorâ characteristicsâ ofâ anâ organizationâindeed,â ofâ anyâ groupâisâ theâ sharedâ acceptanceâ ofâ organizational normsâ andâ rulesâ byâ itsâ members.â acceptanceâ canâtakeâdifferentâforms;âitâcanâbeâconsciousâorâunconscious,âovertâorâimplicit,âbutâitâisâ almostâalwaysâpresent,âbecauseâanâorganizationâcanâsurviveâonlyâifâitâholdsâitsâmembersâ together.âGroupâcohesivenessârequiresâthatâindividualâmembersââcommitââthemselvesâ thatâ is,â relinquishâ someâofâ theirâpersonalâ freedomâ inâorderâ toâ furtherâorganizationalâ goals.âoneâsâdegreeâofâcommitmentâtheâextentâtoâwhichâoneâacceptsâgroupânormsâandâ subordinatesâselfâtoâorganizationalâgoalsâisâaâmeasureâofâoneâsâloyaltyâtoâtheââteam.â
Theâcorporationâsâoverarchingâgoalâisâprofit.âtoâachieveâthisâgoal,âtopâmanagementâ setsâspecificâtargetsâforâsales,âmarketâshare,âreturnâonâequity,âandâsoâforth.âForâtheâmostâ part,âtheânormsâorârulesâthatâgovernâcorporateâexistenceâareâderivedâfromâtheseâgoals.âButâ clearlyâthereâsânothingâinâeitherâtheânormsâorâtheâgoalsâthatânecessarilyâencouragesâmoralâ behavior;âindeed,âtheyâmayâdiscourageâit.
summary Morality in the sense of the rules or principles
that regulate oneâs conduct toward others can be distinguished from morality in the
broader sense of the values, ideals, and
aspirations that shape a personâs life.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 21
accordingâtoâaârecentâsurveyâbyâtheâamericanâManagementâassociation,âpressureâ toâmeetâunrealisticâbusinessâobjectivesâandâdeadlinesâ isâ theâ leadingâcauseâofâunethicalâ businessâ conduct.11â andâ mountingâ evidenceâ suggestsâ thatâ mostâ managersâ experienceâ roleâconflictsâbetweenâwhatâisâexpectedâofâthemâasâefficient,âprofit-mindedâmembersâofâ anâorganizationâandâwhatâisâexpectedâofâthemâasâethicalâpersons.âInâaâseriesâofâin-depthâ interviewsâwithârecentâgraduatesâofâtheâharvardâMBaâprogram,âresearchersâJosephâL.â Badaracco,âJr.,âandâallenâp.âWebbâfoundâthatâtheseâyoungâmanagersâfrequentlyâreceivedâ explicitâinstructionsâorâfeltâstrongâorganizationalâpressureâtoâdoâthingsâtheyâbelievedâtoâ beâsleazy,âunethical,âorâevenâillegal.12âanotherâsurveyâfoundâthatâaâmajorityâofâmanagersâ atâallâlevelsâexperienceââpressureâfromâtheâtopââtoâmeetâcorporateâgoalsâandâcomplyâwithâ corporateânorms.âofâtheâmanagersâinterviewed,â50âpercentâofâtopâmanagers,â65âpercentâ ofâmiddleâmanagers,âandâ84âpercentâofâlowerâmanagersâagreedâthatâtheyâfeltâpressureâtoâ âcompromiseâpersonalâstandardsâtoâachieveâcompanyâgoals.â13
TheâyoungâmanagersâinterviewedâbyâBadaraccoâandâWebbâidentifiedâfourâpowerfulâ organizationalââcommandmentsââasâresponsibleâforâtheâpressureâtheyâfeltâtoâcompromiseâ theirâintegrity:
First,âperformanceâisâwhatâreallyâcounts,âsoâmakeâyourânumbers.âSecond,âbeâloyalâandâ showâusâthatâyouâreâaâteamâplayer.âThird,âdonâtâbreakâtheâlaw.âFourth,âdonâtâoverinvestâ inâethicalâbehavior.14
althoughâmostâcorporateâgoalsâandânormsâareânotâobjectionableâwhenâviewedâbyâ themselves,âtheyâfrequentlyâputâtheâpeopleâwhoâmustâimplementâthemâintoâaâmoralâpres- sureâcooker.âInâaddition,âpeopleâcanâoverlookâtheâethicalâimplicationsâofâtheirâdecisionsâ justâbecauseâ theyâareâbusyâworkingâonâorganizationalâgoalsâandânotâ lookingâatâ thingsâ fromâaâbroaderâperspective.âInâtheseâways,âtheâneedâtoâmeetâcorporateâobjectives,âtoâbeâaâ teamâplayer,âandâtoâconformâtoâorganizationalânormsâcanâsometimesâleadâotherwiseâhon- orableâindividualsâtoâengageâinâunethicalâconduct.
cOnfOrMity
Itâisânoâsecretâthatâorganizationsâexertâpressureâonâtheirâmembersâtoâconformâtoânormsâ andâgoals.âWhatâmayânotâbeâsoâwidelyâknownâisâhowâeasilyâindividualsâcanâbeâinducedâtoâ behaveâasâthoseâaroundâthemâdo.âaâdramaticâexampleâisâprovidedâinâtheâearlyâconformityâ studiesâbyâsocialâpsychologistâSolomonâasch.15
Inâaâclassicâexperiment,âaschâaskedâgroupsâofâsevenâtoânineâcollegeâstudentsâtoâsayâ whichâofâthreeâlinesâonâaâcardâmatchedâtheâlengthâofâaâsingleâlineâonâanotherâcard:
Pressure to meet corporate objectives, to be a team player, and to conform to organizational norms can sometimes lead people to act unethically.
1 2 3
onlyâoneâofâ theâ subjectsâ inâeachâgroupâwasâânaive,ââorâunawareâofâ theânatureâofâ theâ experiment.âTheâothersâwereâshillsâorâstoogesâofâtheâexperimenter,âwhoâhadâinstructedâ themâtoâmakeâincorrectâjudgmentsâinâaboutâtwo-thirdsâofâtheâcasesâandâinâthisâwayâtoâ pressureâtheânaiveâsubjectsâtoâalterâtheirâcorrectâjudgments.
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22â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
Theâresultsâwereârevealing.âWhenâtheâsubjectsâwereânotâexposedâtoâpressure,â theyâ invariablyâ judgedâcorrectly,âbutâwhenâ theâ stoogesâ allâ gaveâ aâ falseâ answer,â theâ subjectsâ changedâtheirâresponsesâtoâconformâwithâtheâunanimousâmajorityâjudgments.âWhenâoneâ shillâdifferedâfromâtheâmajorityâandâgaveâtheâcorrectâanswer,ânaiveâsubjectsâmaintainedâ theirâpositionâthree-fourthsâofâtheâtime.âhowever,âwhenâtheâhonestâshillâswitchedâtoâtheâ majorityâviewâinâlaterâtrials,âtheâerrorsâmadeâbyânaiveâsubjectsâroseâtoâaboutâtheâsameâlevelâ asâthatâofâsubjectsâwhoâstoodâaloneâagainstâaâunanimousâmajority.
Whyâ didâ theyâ yield?â Someâ respondentsâ saidâ theyâ didnâtâ wantâ toâ seemâ different,â evenâthoughâtheyâcontinuedâtoâbelieveâtheirâ judgmentsâwereâcorrect.âothersâsaidâthatâ althoughâtheirâperceptionsâseemedâcorrect,âtheâmajorityâcouldnâtâbeâwrong.âStillâotherâ subjectsâdidnâtâevenâseemâawareâthatâ theyâhadâcavedâ inâtoâgroupâpressure.âevenâthoseâ whoâheldâtheirâgroundâtendedâtoâbeâprofoundlyâdisturbedâbyâbeingâoutâofâstepâwithâtheâ majorityâandâconfessedâtoâbeingâsorelyâtemptedâtoâalterâtheirâjudgments.âIndeed,âaâsubse- quentâstudyâfoundâthatâstudentsâwhoâstoodâfirmâinâtheirâjudgmentsâsufferedâmoreâanxi- etyâthanâthoseâwhoâswitched.âoneâstudentâwithâtheâstrengthâofâhisâcorrectâconvictionsâ wasâliterallyâdrippingâwithâperspirationâbyâtheâendâofâtheâexperiment.
Inâ theseâexperiments,âwhichâcumulativelyâ includedâ severalâhundredâ students,â theâ subjectsâwereânotâexposedâtoâtheâauthorityâsymbolsâthatâpeopleâinsideâanâorganizationâ faceâbosses,âboardsâofâdirectors,âprofessionalâpeersânorâwereâ theyâupâagainstâestab- lishedâpolicyâandâentrenchedânorms.âcorrectâresponsesâwouldânotâhaveâhadâtheâseriousâ careerâ consequencesâ thatâbuckingâ theâ systemâcanâ sometimesâhaveâ forâmembersâofâ anâ organization:âbeingâ transferred,âdismissed,â frozenâ inâaâposition,âorâmadeâanâorganiza- tionalâ pariah.â and,â ofâ course,â theâ studentsâ didâ notâ bringâ toâ theseâ experimentsâ theâ financialâandâpersonalâinvestmentsâthatâindividualsâbringâtoâtheirâjobs.âMenâandâwomenâ withinâanâorganizationâareâunderâgreaterâpressureâtoâconformâthanâwereâtheâstudentsâinâ aschâsâstudies.
grOuPthink
almostâallâgroupsârequireâsomeâconformityâfromâtheirâmembers,âbutâinâextremeâcasesâ theâ demandâ forâ conformityâ canâ leadâ toâ whatâ socialâ psychologistsâ callâ âgroupthink.ââ groupthinkâhappensâwhenâpressureâforâunanimityâwithinâaâhighlyâcohesiveâgroupâover- whelmsâitsâmembersââdesireâorâabilityâtoâappraiseâtheâsituationârealisticallyâandâconsiderâ alternativeâcoursesâofâaction.âTheâdesireâforâtheâcomfortâandâconfidenceâthatâcomesâfromâ mutualâagreementâandâapprovalâleadsâmembersâofâtheâgroupâtoâcloseâtheirâeyesâtoânega- tiveâinformation,âtoâignoreâwarningsâthatâtheâgroupâmayâbeâmistaken,âandâtoâdiscountâ outsideâideasâthatâmightâcontradictâtheâthinkingâorâtheâdecisionsâofâtheâgroup.
Whenâunderâtheâswayâofâgroupthink,âgroupâmembersâmayâhaveâtheâillusionâthatâtheâ groupâisâinvulnerableâorâthatâbecauseâtheâgroupâisâgoodâorâright,âwhateverâitâdoesâisâper- missible.âIndividualsâinâtheâgroupâtendâtoâself-censorâthoughtsâthatâgoâagainstâtheâgroupâsâ ideasâandârationalizeâawayâconflictingâevidence,âandâtheâgroupâasâaâwholeâmayâimplicitlyâ orâexplicitlyâpressureâpotentialâdissentersâtoâconform.âGroupthinkâthusâleadsâtoâirrational,â sometimesâdisastrousâdecisions,âandâitâhasâenormousâpotentialâforâdoingâmoralâdamage.
diffusiOn Of resPOnsiBility
pressureâtoâconformâtoâtheâgroupâandâtoâadhereâtoâitsânormsâandâbeliefsâcanâleadâtoâtheâ surrenderâ ofâ individualâ moralâ autonomy.â Thisâ tendencyâ isâ enhancedâ byâ theâ factâ that
summary Several aspects of corporate structure
and function work to undermine individual moral responsibility.
Organizational norms, pressure to conform
(sometimes leading to groupthink), and
diffusion of responsibility inside
large organizations can all make the exercise of individual integrity
difficult.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 23
groupâactionsâfrequentlyâinvolveâtheâparticipationâofâmanyâpeople.âasâaâresult,âresponsi- bilityâforâwhatâanâorganizationâdoesâcanâbecomeâfragmentedâorâdiffusedâthroughoutâtheâ group,âwithânoâsingleâindividualâseeingâhimselfâorâherselfâasâresponsibleâforâwhatâhappens.â Indeed,âitâmayâbeâdifficultâtoâsayâexactlyâwhoâshouldâbeâheldâaccountable.âThisâdiffusion of responsibility insideâanâorganizationâleadsâindividualsâtoâhaveâaâdilutedâorâdiminishedâ senseâofâtheirâownâpersonalâmoralâresponsibilities.âTheyâtendâtoâseeâthemselvesâsimplyâasâ smallâplayersâinâaâprocessâorâasâcogsâinâaâmachineâoverâwhichâtheyâhaveânoâcontrolâandâforâ whichâ theyâ areâunaccountable.âTheyâ rationalizeâ toâ themselvesâ contributingâ toâ actions,â policies,âorâeventsâthatâtheyâwouldârefuseâtoâperformâorâtoâauthorizeâifâtheyâthoughtâtheâ decisionâwereâentirelyâupâtoâthem.ââItâsânotâmyâfault,ââtheyâthink.ââThisâwouldâhappenâ anyway,âwithâorâwithoutâme.ââDiffusionâofâresponsibilityâencouragesâtheâmoralâmyopiaâ ofâthinkingââIâmâjustâdoingâmyâjob,ââinsteadâofâtakingâaâ20/20âlookâatâtheâbiggerâpicture.
Thisâsenseâofâdiminishedâindividualâmoralâresponsibilityâforâanâoutcomeâthatâmanyâ peopleâbringâaboutâorâallowâtoâhappenâisâsomethingâthatâsocialâpsychologistsâbeganâstud- yingâmoreâcloselyâasâaâresultâofâtheâsadâcaseâofâKittyâGenovese,âaâyoungâwomanâwhoâwasâ stabbedâtoâdeathâinâtheâ1960s.âalthoughâtheâmurderâwasânotâinâitselfâsoâunusual,âitâmadeâ headlinesâandâeditorialâpagesâacrossâtheânationâbecauseâthirty-eightâofâherâneighborsâwit- nessedâherâbrutalâslaying.âInâanswerâtoâherâpitifulâscreamsâofâterrorâatâ3âa.m.,âtheyâcameâ toâtheirâwindowsâandâremainedâthereâforâtheâthirtyâorâmoreâminutesâitâtookâherâassailantâ toâbrutalizeâher.â(heâevidentlyâleftâforâaâwhileâandâthenâreturnedâtoâfinishâherâoff.)âofâtheâ thirty-eight,ânotâoneâattemptedâtoâinterveneâinâanyâway;ânoâoneâevenâphonedâtheâpolice.
WhyâdidnâtâKittyâGenoveseâsâneighborsâhelpâher?âMostâsocialâpsychologistsâbelieveâ thatâ anâ individualâsâ senseâ ofâ personalâ responsibilityâ isâ inverselyâ proportionalâ toâ theâ numberâ ofâ peopleâ witnessingâ orâ involvedâ inâ theâ episode.â Theâ moreâ peopleâ whoâ areâ observingâanâevent,âtheâlessâlikelyâisâanyâoneâofâthemâtoâfeelâobligedâtoâdoâsomething.â Inâemergencies,âweâ seemânaturallyâ toâ letâ theâbehaviorâofâ thoseâaroundâusâdictateâourâ responseâaâphenomenonâoftenâcalledâbystander apathy.âButâtheâpointâisâmoreâgeneral.â Inâanyâ largeâgroupâorâorganization,âdiffusionâofâ responsibilityâ forâ itsâ actionsâcanâ leadâ individualsâtoâfeelâanonymousâandânotâaccountableâforâwhatâhappens.âSubmergedâinâtheâ group,âtheâindividualâmayânotâevenâquestionâtheâmoralityâofâhisâorâherâactions.16
pressureâtoâconformâtoâorganizationalânormsâandâaâdiminishedâsenseâofâpersonalârespon- sibilityâforâgroupâbehaviorâundermineâindividualâintegrityâandâmoralâautonomy.âBusinessâ corporationsâareânotânecessarilyâworseâthanâmanyâotherâgroupsâinâthisârespect,âbutâcer- tainlyâtheâpressureâinâbusinessâtoâhelpâtheâcompanyâmakeâaâprofitâorâachieveâitsâotherâ goals,âtoâdoâwhatâisâexpectedâofâyou,âandâgenerallyâtoâbeâaâloyalâandâcooperativeâteamâ playerâcanâfoster,âorâatâleastâdoânothingâtoâinhibit,âtheseâgroupâpropensities.âBeyondâthat,â manyâcorporationsâfailâtoâinstitutionalizeâethics.âTheyâdonâtâarticulateâorâcommunicateâ ethicalâ standardsâ toâ theirâmembers;â theyâdonâtâ activelyâ enforceâ them;â andâ theyâ retainâ structuresâandâpoliciesâthatâthwartâindividualâintegrity.âForâexample,âwhenâaâBeech-nutâ employeeâexpressedâconcernsâaboutâtheâfactâthatâtheâconcentrateâtheâcompanyâwasâpro- ducingâforâitsââ100%âpureââappleâjuiceâcontainedânothingâmoreâthanâsugar,âwater,âandâ chemicals,âhisâannualâperformanceâreviewâdescribedâhisâjudgmentâasââcoloredâbyânaĂŻvetĂŠâ andâimpracticalâideals.â17
employeesâfrequentlyâhaveâtoâfightâhardâtoâmaintainâtheirâmoralâintegrityâinâaâshow- downâwithâorganizationalâpriorities.âconsider,â forâexample,â thoseâWallâStreetâanalystsâ pressuredâbyâtheirâfirmsâtoârecommendâtoâclientsâstocksâorâbondsâtheâanalystsâknewâtoâbe
Diffusion of responsibility inside an organization can weaken peopleâs sense of moral responsibility.
Business corporations are no worse than other groups, but many of them do little to protect individual integrity and moral autonomy.
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24â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
âjunkââorââdogs.â18âMoreâdramatically,âonâJuneâdayâinâ2011,âaâUSâairwaysâcaptainâwithâ thirtyâyearsâofâexperienceâstoppedâherâflightâfromâdepartingâbecauseâsheâwasâworriedâthatâ aâbackupâpowerâsystemâwasâdefective.âTheâcompanyâpressuredâherâ toâflyâanyway,âandâ whenâsheârefusedâtoâdoâso,âsecurityâofficialsâescortedâherâoutâofâtheâairportâandâthreatenedâ toâarrestâherâcrewâifâtheyâdidnâtâcooperate.âWhenâotherâpilotsâbackedâherâupâandârefusedâ toâflyâtheâplane,âUSâairwaysâfinallyâhadâtechniciansâserviceâtheâplane.âTheyâconfirmedâ thatâtheâcomponentâwasâfaulty,âandâfixedâit.19
often,â however,â theâ problemâ facingâ peopleâ inâ businessâ andâ otherâ organizationâ contextsâisânotâthatâofâdoingâwhatâtheyâbelievedâtoâbeârightâbutâratherâofâdecidingâwhatâ theârightâthingâtoâdoâis.âTheyâcanâsometimesâfaceâdifficultâandâpuzzlingâmoralâquestions,â questionsâthatâneedâtoâbeâanswered.âhowâdoesâoneâgoâaboutâdoingâthat?âIsâthereâsomeâ reliableâprocedureâorâmethodâforâansweringâmoralâquestions?âInâscience,âtheâscientificâ methodâtellsâusâwhatâstepsâtoâtakeâifâweâseekâtoâanswerâaâscientificâquestion,âbutâthereâisâ noâcomparableâmoralâmethodâforâengagingâethicalâquestions.âThereâis,âhowever,âgeneralâ agreementâaboutâwhatâconstitutesâgoodâmoralâreasoning.
⢠⢠â˘
Mor al re asoNiNg Itâisâusefulâtoâviewâmoralâreasoningâatâfirstâinâtheâcontextâofâargument.âanâargumentâisâaâ groupâofâstatements,âoneâofâwhichâ(calledâtheâconclusion)âisâclaimedâtoâfollowâfromâtheâ othersâ(calledâtheâpremises).âhereâsâanâexampleâofâanâargument:
argument 1
If a person is a mother, the person is a female.
Fran is a mother.
Therefore, Fran is a female.
Theâfirstâtwoâstatementsâ(theâpremises)âofâthisâargumentâhappenâtoâentailâtheâthirdâ (theâconclusion),âwhichâmeansâthatâifâIâacceptâtheâfirstâtwoâasâtrue,âthenâIâmustâacceptâ theâthirdâasâalsoâtrue.ânotâtoâacceptâtheâconclusionâwhileâacceptingâtheâpremisesâwouldâ resultâinâaâcontradictionâholdingâtwoâbeliefsâthatâcannotâbothâbeâtrueâatâtheâsameâtime.â Inâotherâwords,âifâIâbelieveâthatâallâmothersâareâfemalesâandâthatâFranâisâaâmotherâ(theâ premises),âthenâIâcannotâdenyâthatâFranâisâaâfemaleâ(theâconclusion)âwithoutâcontradict- ingâmyself.âanâargumentâlikeâthisâone,âwhoseâpremisesâlogicallyâentailâitsâconclusion,âisâaâ valid argument.
anâ invalid argument isâ oneâ whoseâ premisesâ doâ notâ entailâ itsâ conclusion.â Inâ anâ invalidâargument,âIâcanâacceptâtheâpremisesâasâtrueâandârejectâtheâconclusionâwithoutâanyâ contradiction.âThus:
argument 2
If a person is a mother, the person is a female.
Fran is a female.
Therefore, Fran is a mother.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 25
Theâconclusionâofâthisâargumentâdoesânotânecessarilyâfollowâfromâtheâtrueâpremises.â IâcanâbelieveâthatâeveryâmotherâisâaâfemaleâandâthatâFranâisâaâfemaleâbutâdenyâthatâFranâisâ aâmotherâwithoutâcontradictingâmyself.
oneâwayâtoâshowâthisâisâbyâmeansâofâaâcounterexample,âanâexampleâthatâisâconsist- entâwithâtheâpremisesâbutâ isâ inconsistentâwithâtheâconclusion.âLetâsâ supposeâFranâ isâaâ âtwo-year-old,âaâpremiseâthatâisâperfectlyâconsistentâwithâtheâtwoâstatedâpremises.âIfâsheâ is,âsheâcanâtâpossiblyâbeâaâmother.âorâletâsâsupposeâFranâisâanâadultâfemaleâwhoâhappensâ toâbeâchildless,âanotherâpremiseâthatâisâperfectlyâconsistentâwithâtheâstatedâpremisesâbutâ âobviouslyâatâoddsâwithâtheâconclusion.âIfâanâargumentâisâvalidâ(suchâasâargumentâ1),â thenânoâcounterexamplesâareâpossible.
aâvalidâargumentâcanâhaveâuntrueâpremises,âasâinâtheâfollowing:
argument 3
If a person is a female, she must be a mother.
Fran is a female.
Therefore, Fran must be a mother.
Likeâargumentâ1,âthisâargumentâisâvalid.âIfâIâacceptâitsâpremisesâasâtrue,âIâmustâ acceptâitsâconclusionâasâtrue;âotherwiseâIâwillâcontradictâmyself.âhowever,âalthoughâ argumentâ 3â isâ valid,â itâ isâ unsoundâ becauseâ oneâ ofâ itsâ premisesâ isâ falseânamely,â âIfâaâpersonâ isâaâ female,â sheâmustâbeâaâmother.âârealizingâ theâpatentâabsurdityâofâ oneâ ofâ itsâ premises,â noâ sensibleâ personâ wouldâ acceptâ thisâ argumentâsâ conclusion.â Butâ noticeâ whyâ theâ argumentâ isâ unsoundânotâ becauseâ theâ typeâ ofâ reasoningâ itâ involvesâisâinvalidâbutâbecauseâoneâofâtheâpremisesâisâfalse.âsound arguments,âsuchâ asâargumentâ1,âhaveâtrueâpremisesâandâvalidâreasoning.âunsound argumentsâhaveâ atâleastâoneâfalseâpremise,âasâinâargumentâ3,âorâinvalidâreasoning,âasâinâargumentâ2,â orâboth.
nowâletâsâconsiderâsomeâmoral arguments,âwhichâcanâbeâdefinedâsimplyâasâargu- mentsâwhoseâconclusionsâareâmoralâjudgments.âhereâareâsomeâexamplesâthatâdealâwithâ affirmativeâactionâforâwomenâandâminoritiesâinâtheâworkplace:
argument 4
If an action violates the law, it is morally wrong.
Affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters violates the law.
Therefore, affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters is morally wrong.
argument 5
If an action violates the will of the majority, it is morally wrong.
Affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters violates the will of the majority.
Therefore, affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters is morally wrong.
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26â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
argument 6
If an action redresses past injuries that have disadvantaged a group, it is morally permissible.
Affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters redresses injuries that have disadvantaged these groups.
Therefore, affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters is morally permissible.
argument 7
If an action is the only practical way to remedy a social problem, then it is morally permissible.
Affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters is the only practical way to remedy the social problem of unequal employment opportunity.
Therefore, affirmative action on behalf of women and minorities in personnel matters is morally permissible.
Theâfirstâ premiseâ inâ eachâofâ theseâ argumentsâ isâ aâmoralâ standard,â theâ secondâ anâ allegedâfact,âandâtheâconclusionâaâmoralâjudgment.âMoral reasoning orâargumentâtypi- callyâmovesâfromâaâmoralâstandard,âthroughâoneâorâmoreâfactualâjudgmentsâaboutâsomeâ person,âaction,âorâpolicyârelatedâtoâthatâstandard,âtoâaâmoralâjudgmentâaboutâthatâperson,â action,âorâpolicy.âGoodâmoralâreasoningâwillâfrequentlyâbeâmoreâcomplicatedâthanâtheseâ examples.âoftenâitâwillâinvolveâanâappealâtoâmoreâthanâoneâstandardâasâwellâasâtoâvariousâ appropriateâfactualâclaims,âandâitsâargumentativeâstructureâmayâbeâmoreâelaborate.âStill,â theseâexamplesâillustrateâitsâmostâbasicâform.
defensiBle MOral JudgMents
Ifâaâmoralâjudgmentâorâconclusionâisâdefensible,âthenâitâmustâbeâsupportableâbyâaâdefen- sibleâmoralâ standard,â togetherâwithâ relevantâ facts.âaâmoralâ standardâ supportsâ aâmoralâ judgmentâifâtheâstandard,âtakenâtogetherâwithâtheârelevantâfacts,âlogicallyâentailsâtheâmoralâ judgmentâandâifâtheâmoralâstandardâitselfâisâanâacceptableâstandard.âIfâsomeoneâarguesâthatâ affirmativeâactionâforâminoritiesâandâwomenâisârightâ(orâwrong)âbutâcannotâproduceâaâsup- portingâprincipleâwhenâasked,âthenâtheâpersonâsâpositionâisâconsiderablyâweakened.âandâifâ theâpersonâdoesânotâseeâanyâneedâtoâsupportâtheâjudgmentâbyâappealingâtoâaâmoralâstand- ard,âthenâheâorâsheâsimplyâdoesânotâunderstandâhowâmoralâconceptsâareâusedâorâisâusingâ moralâwordsâlikeâârightââorââwrongââdifferentlyâfromâtheâwayâtheyâareâcommonlyâused.
Keepingâthisâinâmindâthatâmoralâjudgmentsâmustâbeâsupportableâbyâmoralâstand- ardsâandâ factsâwillâ aidâyourâunderstandingâofâmoralâdiscourse,âwhichâcanâbeâhighlyâ complexâandâsophisticated.âItâwillâalsoâsharpenâyourâownâcriticalâfacultiesâandâimproveâ yourâmoralâreasoningâandâabilityâtoâformulateârelevantâmoralâarguments.
Patterns Of defense and challenge
Inâ assessingâ arguments,â oneâ mustâ beâ carefulâ toâ clarifyâ theâ meaningsâ ofâ theirâ keyâ termsâ andâphrases.âoftenâpremisesâ canâbeâunderstoodâ inâmoreâ thanâoneâway,â andâ thisâambiguityâmayâleadâpeopleâtoâacceptâ(orâreject)âargumentsâthatâtheyâshouldnât.â Forâexample,ââaffirmativeâactionââseemsâtoâmeanâdifferentâthingsâtoâdifferentâpeople
Moral judgments should be supported
by moral standards and relevant facts.
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chapterâoneâ TheânaTureâofâmoraliTyâ â â 27
(seeâchapterâ11âonâjobâdiscrimination).âBeforeâweâcanâprofitablyâassessâargumentsâ 4âthroughâ7,âweâhaveâtoâagreeâonâhowâweâunderstandââaffirmativeâaction.ââSimilarly,â argumentâ5âreliesâonâtheâideaâofââviolatingâtheâwillâofâtheâmajority,ââbutâthisânotionâ hasâtoâbeâclarifiedâbeforeâweâcanâevaluateâeitherâtheâmoralâprincipleâthatâitâisâwrongâtoâ violateâtheâwillâofâtheâmajorityâorâtheâfactualâclaimâthatâaffirmativeâactionâdoesâviolateâ theâmajorityâsâwill.
assumingâ thatâ theâ argumentsâ areâ logicallyâ validâ inâ theirâ formâ (asâ argumentsâ 4â throughâ7âare)âandâthatâtheirâtermsâhaveâbeenâclarifiedâandâpossibleâambiguitiesâelimi- nated,â thenâ weâ mustâ turnâ ourâ attentionâ toâ assessingâ theâ premisesâ ofâ theâ arguments.â Shouldâweâacceptâorârejectâtheirâpremises?ârememberâthatâifâanâargumentâisâvalidâandâ youâacceptâtheâpremises,âyouâmustâacceptâtheâconclusion.
Letâsâlookâatâsomeâfurtherâaspectsâofâthisâassessmentâprocess:
1. evaluating the factual claims. Ifâtheâpartiesâtoâanâethicalâdiscussionâareâwillingâtoâ acceptâtheâmoralâstandardâ(orâstandards)âinâquestion,âthenâtheyâcanâconcentrateâ onâ theâ factualâ claims.â Thus,â forâ example,â inâ argumentâ 4â theyâ willâ focusâ onâ whetherâaffirmativeâactionâonâbehalfâofâwomenâandâminoritiesâisâinâfactâillegal.âInâ argumentâ7âtheyâwillâneedâtoâdetermineâwhetherâaffirmativeâactionâisâreallyâtheâ onlyâpracticalâwayâtoâremedyâtheâsocialâproblemâofâunequalâemploymentâoppor- tunity.âanalogousâquestionsâcanâbeâaskedâaboutâtheâfactualâclaimsâofâargumentsâ 5âandâ6.âansweringâthemâinâtheâaffirmativeâwouldârequireâconsiderableâsupport- ingâdata.
2. Challenging the moral standard. Moralâdisagreementsâdoânotâalwaysâturnâonâfac- tualâ issues.âTheâmoralâ standardâonâwhichâaâgivenâmoralâargumentâreliesâmayâbeâ controversial.â oneâ partyâ mightâ challengeâ theâ standard,â contendingâ thatâ itâ isâ implausibleâorâthatâweâshouldânotâacceptâit.âTheâcriticâmightâdoâthisâinâseveralâdiffer- entâwaysâforâexample,âbyâshowingâthatâthereâareâexceptionsâtoâtheâstandard,âthatâ theâstandardâleadsâtoâunacceptableâconsequences,âorâthatâitâisâinconsistentâwithâtheâ arguerâsâotherâmoralâbeliefs.
Inâtheâfollowingâdialogue,âforâexample,âLynnâisâattackingâSamâsâadvocacyâofâtheâ standardââIfâanâactionâredressesâpastâinjuriesâthatâhaveâdisadvantagedâaâgroup,âitâisâ morallyâpermissibleâ:
Lynn: What would you think of affirmative action for Jews in the workplace?
Sam: Iâd be against it.
Lynn: What about Catholics?
Sam: No.
Lynn: People of Irish extraction?
Sam: They should be treated the same as anybody else.
Lynn: But each of these groups and more I could mention were victimized in the past by unfair discrimination and probably in some cases continue to be.
Sam: So?
Lynn: So the standard youâre defending leads to a judgment you reject: namely, that Jews, Catholics, and Irish should be compensated by affirmative action for having been disadvantaged. How do you account for this inconsistency?
summary Moral reasoning and argument typically
appeal both to moral standards and to
relevant facts. Moral judgments should be
entailed by the relevant moral standards and the facts, and they
should not contradict our other beliefs. Both standards and facts must be assessed
when moral arguments are being evaluated.
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28â â â partâoneâ moralâphilosophyâandâbusiness
atâthisâpoint,âSam,âorâanyârationalâpersonâinâaâsimilarâposition,âhasâthreeâalterna- tives:â abandonâ orâ modifyâ theâ standard,â alterâ hisâ moralâ judgment,â orâ showâ howâ womenâandâminoritiesâfitâtheâoriginalâprincipleâevenâthoughâtheâotherâgroupsâdoânot.
3. defending the moral standard. Whenâtheâstandardâisâcriticized,âthenâitsâadvocateâ mustâ defendâ it.â oftenâ thisâ requiresâ invokingâ anâ evenâ moreâ generalâ principle.â a defenderâ ofâ argumentâ 6,â forâ example,â mightâ upholdâ theâ redressâ principleâ byâ appealingâtoâsomeâmoreâgeneralâconceptionâofâsocialâjustice.âorâdefendersâmightâtryâ toâshowâhowâtheâstandardâinâquestionâentailsâotherâmoralâjudgmentsâthatâbothâtheâ criticâandâtheâdefenderâaccept,âtherebyâenhancingâtheâplausibilityâofâtheâstandard.
Inâtheâfollowingâexchange,âtinaâisâdefendingâtheâstandardâofâargumentâ5:ââIfâanâ actionâviolatesâtheâwillâofâtheâmajority,âitâisâmorallyâwrongâ:
Tina: Okay, do you think the government should impose a national religion on all Americans?
Jake: Of course not.
Tina: What about requiring people to register their handguns?
Jake: Iâm all for it.
Tina: And using kids in pornography?
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