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Throughout history, most managers operated on a trial-and-error basis. During the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, major advances in manufacturing and transportation technologies occurred, such as the steam engine, cotton gin, and railway networks. And with the availability of large numbers of low- skilled laborers, businesses and factories grew in size, becoming more complex to operate. Managers who made minor improvements in management tactics were unable to achieve mass production. not able to bring about increases in production quality. able to achieve impressive increases in production quantity and quality. able to hasten the emergence of management as an informal art. O unable to achieve economies of scale.