Fund Raising Project Selection
Resources: Fund Raising Project Selection case in Ch. 2 of Project Management: The Managerial Process
Complete the “Assignment” section after reading the Fund Raising Project Selection case in Ch. 2 of Project Management: The Managerial Process.
Complete the paper discussing the project rankings in 350 words.
Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
you are required to turn in both the evaluation form and a 350-word paper.
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CHAPTER TWO
Organization Strategy and Project Selection
Organization Strategy and Project Selection The Strategic Management Process: An Overview The Need for a Project Portfolio Management System A Portfolio Management System Selection Criteria Applying a Selection Model Managing the Portfolio System Summary Appendix 2.1: Request for Proposal (RFP)
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Strategy is implemented through projects. Every project should have a clear link to the organization’s strategy.
Strategy is fundamentally deciding how the organization will compete. Organizations use projects to convert strategy into new products, services, and processes needed for success. For example, Intel’s major strategy is one of differentiation. Its projects target innovation and time to market. Currently, Intel is directing its strategy toward specialty chips for products other than computers, such as autos, security, cell phones, air controls. Another goal is to reduce project cycle times. Intel, NEC, General Electric, and AT&T have reduced their cycle times by 20–50 percent. Projects and project management play the key role in supporting strategic goals. It is vital for project managers to think and act strategically Aligning projects with the strategic goals of the organization is crucial for project success. Today’s economic
climate is unprecedented by rapid changes in technology, global competition, and financial uncertainty. These conditions make strategy/project alignment even more essential for success. Ensuring a strong link between the strategic plan and projects is a difficult task that demands constant attention from top and middle management. The larger and more diverse an organization, the more difficult it is to create and maintain this strong link.
Companies today are under enormous pressure to manage a process that clearly aligns projects to organization strategy. Ample evidence still suggests that many organizations have not developed a process that clearly aligns project selection to the strategic plan. The result is poor utilization of the organization’s resources—people, money, equipment, and core competencies. Conversely, organizations that have a coherent link of projects to strategy have more cooperation across the organization, perform better on projects, and have fewer projects. How can an organization ensure this link and alignment? The answer requires integration of projects with the
strategic plan. Integration assumes the existence of a strategic plan and a process for prioritizing projects by their contribution to the plan. A crucial factor to ensure the success of integrating the plan with projects lies in the creation of a process that is open and transparent for all participants to review. This chapter presents an overview of the importance of strategic planning and the process for developing a strategic plan. Typical problems encountered when strategy and projects are not linked are noted. A generic methodology that ensures integration by creating very strong linkages of project selection and priority to the strategic plan is then discussed. The intended outcomes are clear organization focus, best use of scarce organization resources (people, equipment, capital), and improved communication across projects and departments.
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Why Project Managers Need to Understand Strategy Project management historically has been preoccupied solely with the planning and execution of projects. Strategy was considered to be under the purview of senior management. This is oldschool thinking. Newschool thinking recognizes that project management is at the apex of strategy and operations. Aaron Shenhar speaks to this issue when he states, “… it is time to expand the traditional role of the project manager from an operational to a more strategic perspective. In the modern evolving organization, project managers will be focused on business aspects, and their role will expand from getting the job done to achieving the business results and winning in the market place.”1 There are two main reasons why project managers need to understand their organization’s mission and
strategy. The first reason is so they can make appropriate decisions and adjustments. For example, how a project manager would respond to a suggestion to modify the design of a product to enhance performance will vary depending upon whether his company strives to be a product leader through innovation or to achieve operational excellence through low cost solutions. Similarly, how a project manager would respond to delays may vary depending upon strategic concerns. A project manager will authorize overtime if her firm places a premium on getting to the market first. Another project manager will accept the delay if speed is not essential. The second reason project managers need to understand their organization’s strategy is so they can be
effective project advocates. Project managers have to be able to demonstrate to senior management how their project contributes to their firm’s mission. Protection and continued support come from being aligned with corporate objectives. Project managers also need to be able to explain to team members and other stakeholders why certain project objectives and priorities are critical. This is essential for getting buyin on contentious trade off decisions. For these reasons project managers will find it valuable to have a keen understanding of strategic
management and project selection processes, which are discussed next.
The Strategic Management Process: An Overview Strategic management is the process of assessing “what we are” and deciding and implementing “what we intend to be and how we are going to get there.” Strategy describes how an organization intends to compete with the resources available in the existing and perceived future environment.
Two major dimensions of strategic management are responding to changes in the external environment and allocating scarce resources of the firm to improve its competitive position. Constant scanning of the external environment for changes is a major requirement for survival in a dynamic competitive environment. The second dimension is the internal responses to new action programs aimed at enhancing the competitive position of the firm. The nature of the responses depends on the type of business, environment volatility, competition, and the organizational culture. Strategic management provides the theme and focus of the future direction of the organization. It supports
consistency of action at every level of the organization. It encourages integration because effort and resources are committed to common goals and strategies. See Snapshot from Practice: Does IBM’s Watson’s Jeopardy Project Represent a Change in Strategy? It is a continuous, iterative process aimed at developing an integrated and coordinated longterm plan of action. Strategic management positions the organization to meet the needs and requirements of its customers for the long term. With the longterm position identified, objectives are set, and strategies are developed to achieve objectives and then translated into actions by implementing projects. Strategy can decide the survival of an organization. Most organizations are successful in formulating strategies for what course(s) they should pursue. However, the problem in many organizations is implementing strategies —that is, making them happen. Integration of strategy formulation and implementation often does not exist.
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SNAPSHOT FROM PRACTICE Does IBM’s Watson’s Jeopardy Project Represent a Change in Strategy?*
IBM’s investment in artificial intelligence paid off. In February 2010, millions of people were glued to their television sets to watch IBM’s Watson outclass two former champion contestants on the Jeopardy quiz show. Watson performed at human expert levels in terms of precision, confidence, and speed during the Jeopardy quiz show. Does Watson represent a new strategic direction for IBM? Not really. The Watson project is simply a manifestation
of the move from computer hardware to a service strategy over a decade ago.
WATSON PROJECT DESCRIPTION Artificial intelligence has advanced significantly in recent years. Watson goes beyond IBM’s chessplaying supercomputer of the late 1990s. Chess is finite, logical, and reduced easily to mathematics. Watson’s space is ill defined and involves dealing with abstraction and the circumstantial nature of language. Since Watson’s system can understand natural language, it can extend the way people interact with computers. The IBM Watson project took three intense years of research and development by a core team of about 20. Eight
university teams working on specific challenge areas augmented these researchers. Watson depends on over 200 million pages of structured and unstructured data and a program capable of running
trillions of operations per second. With this information backup, it attacks a Jeopardy question by parsing the question into small pieces. With the question parsed, the program then searches for relevant data. Using hundreds of decision rules, the program generates possible answers. These answers are assigned a confidence score to decide if Watson should risk offering an answer and how much to bet.
WHAT’S NEXT? Now that the hype is over, IBM is pursuing their service strategy and the knowledge gained from the Watson project to real business applications. Watson’s artificial intelligence design is flexible and suggests a wide variety of opportunities in industries such as finance, medicine, law enforcement, defense. Further extensions to handheld mobile applications that tap into Watson’s servers also hold great potential. IBM identified the obvious lowest hanging apples on the tree as providing healthcare solutions and has begun design of such a program.
© Sean Gallup/Getty Images
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To create a “doctor’s consultant” program would likely follow a design platform similar to Watson’s. For example, it would be able to:
Data mine current medical documents to build a knowledge base Integrate individual patient information Use system’s complex analytics to select relevant data Use decision rules to provide physicians with diagnostic options Rank options with confidence levels for each option.
Creating a doctor’s consultant solution will not replace doctors. Although the system holds tremendous potential, it is manmade and depends on the database, data analytics, and decision rules to select options. Given the doctor’s consultant input, a trained doctor makes the final patient diagnosis to supplement physical examination and experience. The Watson project provides IBM with a flexible component to continue their decadeold strategy, moving IBM
from computer hardware to service products.
* Ferrucci, et al. “Building Watson,” AI Magazine. vol. 31, no. 3. Fall 2010.
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The components of strategic management are closely linked, and all are directed toward the future success of the organization. Strategic management requires strong links among mission, goals, objectives, strategy, and implementation. The mission gives the general purpose of the organization. Goals give global targets within the mission. Objectives give specific targets to goals. Objectives give rise to formulation of strategies to reach objectives. Finally, strategies require actions and tasks to be implemented. In most cases the actions to be taken represent projects. Figure 2.1 shows a schematic of the strategic management process and major activities required.
FIGURE 2.1 Strategic Management Process
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Four Activities of the Strategic Management Process The typical sequence of activities of the strategic management process is outlined here; a description of each activity then follows:
1. Review and define the organizational mission. 2. Analyze and formulate strategies. 3. Set objectives to achieve strategy. 4. Implement strategies through projects.
Review and Define the Organizational Mission The mission identifies “what we want to become,” or the raison d’être. Mission statements identify the scope of the organization in terms of its product or service. A written mission statement provides focus for decision making when shared by organizational managers and employees. Everyone in the organization should be keenly aware of the organization’s mission. For example, at one large consulting firm, partners who fail to recite the mission statement on demand are required to buy lunch. The mission statement communicates and identifies the purpose of the organization to all stakeholders. Mission statements can be used for evaluating organization performance. Traditional components found in mission statements are major products and services, target customers and
markets, and geographical domain. In addition, statements frequently include organizational philosophy, key technologies, public image, and contribution to society. Including such factors in mission statements relates directly to business success. Mission statements change infrequently. However, when the nature of the business changes or shifts, revised
mission and strategy statements may be required. See Snapshot from Practice: HP’s Strategy Revision as an example of a mission and strategy revision. More specific mission statements tend to give better results because of a tighter focus. Mission statements
decrease the chance of false directions by stakeholders. For example, compare the phrasing of the following mission statements:
Provide hospital design services. Provide data mining and analysis services. Provide information technology services. Increase shareholder value. Provide highvalue products to our customer.
Clearly, the first two statements leave less chance for misinterpretation than the others. A ruleofthumb test for a mission statement is, if the statement can be anybody’s mission statement, it will not provide the guidance and focus intended. The mission sets the parameters for developing objectives.
Analyze and Formulate Strategies Formulating strategy answers the question of what needs to be done to reach objectives. Strategy formulation includes determining and evaluating alternatives that support the organization’s objectives and selecting the best alternative. The first step is a realistic evaluation of the past and current position of the enterprise. This step typically includes an analysis of “who are the customers” and “what are their needs as they (the customers) see them.”
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SNAPSHOT FROM PRACTICE HP’s Strategy Revision*
August 18, 2011, Hewlett Packard announced a dramatic change in strategy. Leo Apotheker, CEO of the world’s largest seller of personal computers, decided to exit the low margin PC unit. He wanted to redirect HP to business software, networking, and storage, which carry higher margins. Unfortunately, Apotheker failed to communicate the strategic change effectively, lost credibility, and was dismissed. He was replaced by Meg Whitman, while controversy over the company’s haphazard direction continued.
THE PC MARKET Fundamentally, the PC has become a commodity. Although the HP personal computer unit represents nearly a third of total revenue and about 19 percent of HP’s profit, growth and profits are slowing. Increased competition from Asia, for example, Lenovo, will continue to erode margins. More importantly, increasing use of smartphones and tablets is already cannibalizing the PC market.
FUTURE MARKETS In HP’s words, their new corporatewide mission is to provide seamless, secure, contextaware experiences for a connected world.* Business software, networking, and storage can be nicely connected for a grand corporate strategy to meet the new mission. IBM, Google, Oracle, and Microsoft already dominate the software industry. They and others are all moving to
collect and use unstructured data to enhance decision making and/or client requests across numerous industries. All are developing better search engines to sort through any manner of data for information relevant to the search. These dominant players leave HP in a catchup mode. HP’s plan to compete requires quick action. Executing the software strategy will require purchasing smaller firms or
developing collaborative relationships to acquire specific expertise. HP has made two purchases to buttress the new strategy. Autonomy Corporation, UK, will concentrate on mining and searching large structured and unstructured data. Their purchase of Vertica provides an analytics platform for large structured and unstructured data. We can expect to see more purchases that connect software, storage, and networking, which will complement HP’s current expertise in the server business.
EXECUTING STRATEGY HP faces risks. HP has bet the farm on this revised strategy that looks similar to what IBM started over a decade ago. IBM has spent billions and ten years of development to perfect their systems (see previous Watson Snapshot). HP is in a “follower” position. This means gaining market share from tough rivals such as IBM, Apple, Google, Oracle, and Cisco. Can HP afford to go facetoface with others in stronger cash positions? Can HP sell off its PC division at a reasonable price? HP must move quickly to catch up. Executing the new mission statement presents numerous leadership challenges.
The changes in HP strategies over the last 15 years have caused confusion and a loss of employee loyalty. Additional changes in organizational culture, along with many new mission critical projects, will place further stress on the organization. HP must be vigilant in selecting, prioritizing, and balancing organizational risk for all projects. HP needs to communicate a coherent strategy that can be executed consistently over time. Although there are outsiders who have praised or criticized the new strategy, we must wait and see how the details
unfold. HP’s strategic moves will make interesting case studies for years to come.
* HP website, HP newsroom.
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The next step is an assessment of the internal and external environments. What are the internal strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise? Examples of internal strengths or weaknesses could be core competencies, such as technology, product quality, management talent, low debt, and dealer networks. Managers can alter internal strengths and weaknesses. Opportunities and threats usually represent external forces for change such as technology, industry structure, and competition. Competitive benchmarking tools are sometimes used here to assess current and future directions. Opportunities and threats are the flip sides of each other. That is, a threat can be perceived as an opportunity, or vice versa. Examples of perceived external threats could be a slowing of the economy, a maturing life cycle,
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exchange rates, or government regulation. Typical opportunities are increasing demand, emerging markets, and demographics. Managers or individual firms have limited opportunities to influence such external environmental factors; however, in recent years notable exceptions have been new technologies such as Apple using the iPod to create a market to sell music. The keys are to attempt to forecast fundamental industry changes and stay in a proactive mode rather than a reactive one. This assessment of the external and internal environments is known as the SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats). From this analysis, critical issues and strategic alternatives are identified. Critical analysis of the strategies
includes asking questions: Does the strategy take advantage of our core competencies? Does the strategy exploit our competitive advantage? Does the strategy maximize meeting customers’ needs? Does the strategy fit within our acceptable risk range? These strategic alternatives are winnowed down to a critical few that support the basic mission. Strategy formulation ends with cascading objectives or projects assigned to lower divisions, departments, or
individuals. Formulating strategy might range around 20 percent of management’s effort, while determining how strategy will be implemented might consume 80 percent.
Set Objectives to Achieve Strategies Objectives translate the organization strategy into specific, concrete, measurable terms. Organizational objectives set targets for all levels of the organization. Objectives pinpoint the direction managers believe the organization should move toward. Objectives answer in detail where a firm is headed and when it is going to get there. Typically, objectives for the organization cover markets, products, innovation, productivity, quality, finance, profitability, employees, and consumers. In every case, objectives should be as operational as possible. That is, objectives should include a time frame, be measurable, be an identifiable state, and be realistic. Doran created the memory device shown in Exhibit 2.1, which is useful when writing objectives.2 Each level below the organizational objectives should support the higherlevel objectives in more detail; this
is frequently called cascading of objectives. For example, if a firm making leather luggage sets an objective of achieving a 40 percent increase in sales through a research and development strategy, this charge is passed to the marketing, production, and R&D departments. The R&D department accepts the firm’s strategy as their objective, and their strategy becomes the design and development of a new “pulltype luggage with hidden retractable wheels.” At this point the objective becomes a project to be implemented—to develop the retractable wheel luggage for market within six months within a budget of $200,000. In summary, organizational objectives drive your projects.
EXHIBIT 2.1 Characteristics of Objectives
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Implement Strategies through Projects Implementation answers the question of how strategies will be realized, given available resources. The conceptual framework for strategy implementation lacks the structure and discipline found in strategy formulation. Implementation requires action and completing tasks; the latter frequently means missioncritical projects. Therefore, implementation must include attention to several key areas. First, completing tasks requires allocation of resources. Resources typically represent funds, people,
management talents, technological skills, and equipment. Frequently, implementation of projects is treated as an “addendum” rather than an integral part of the strategic management process. However, multiple objectives place conflicting demands on organizational resources. Second, implementation requires a formal and informal organization that complements and supports strategy and projects. Authority, responsibility, and performance all depend on organization structure and culture. Third, planning and control systems must be in place to be certain project activities necessary to ensure strategies are effectively performed. Fourth, motivating project contributors will be a major factor for achieving project success. Finally, areas receiving more attention in recent years are portfolio management and prioritizing projects. Although the strategy implementation process is not as clear as strategy formulation, all managers realize that, without implementation, success is impossible. Although the four major steps of strategic management process have not been altered significantly over the years, the view of the time horizon in the strategy formulation process has been altered radically in the last two decades. Global competition and rapid innovation require being highly adaptive to shortrun changes while being consistent in the longer run.
The Need for a Project Portfolio Management System Implementation of projects without a strong priority system linked to strategy creates problems. Three of the most obvious problems are discussed below. A project portfolio system can go a long way to reduce, or even eliminate, the impact of these problems.
Problem 1: The Implementation Gap In organizations with short product life cycles, it is interesting to note that frequently participation in strategic planning and implementation includes participants from all levels within the organization. However, in perhaps 80 percent of the remaining product and service organizations, top management pretty much formulates strategy and leaves strategy implementation to functional managers. Within these broad constraints, more detailed strategies and objectives are developed by the functional managers. The fact that these objectives and strategies are made independently at different levels by functional groups within the organization hierarchy causes manifold problems. Some symptoms of organizations struggling with strategy disconnect and unclear priorities are presented
here.
Conflicts frequently occur among functional managers and cause lack of trust. Frequent meetings are called to establish or renegotiate priorities. People frequently shift from one project to another, depending on current priority. Employees are confused about which projects are important. People are working on multiple projects and feel inefficient.
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Resources are not adequate.
Because clear linkages do not exist, the organizational environment becomes dysfunctional, confused, and ripe for ineffective implementation of organization strategy and, thus, of projects. The implementation gap refers to the lack of understanding and consensus of organization strategy among top and middlelevel managers. A scenario the authors have seen repeated several times follows. Top management picks their top 20 projects
for the next planning period, without priorities. Each functional department—marketing, finance, operations, engineering, information technology, and human resources—selects projects from the list. Unfortunately, independent department priorities across projects are not homogenous. A project that rates first in the IT department can rate 10th in the finance department. Implementation of the projects represents conflicts of interest with animosities developing over organization resources. If this condition exists, how is it possible to effectively implement strategy? The problem is serious. One
study found that only about 25 percent of Fortune 500 executives believe there is a strong linkage, consistency, and/or agreement between the strategies they formulate and implementation. In another study of Deloitte Consulting, Jeff MacIntyre reports, “Only 23 percent of nearly 150 global executives considered their project portfolios aligned with the core business.”3 Middle managers considered organizational strategy to be under the purview of others or not in their realm of influence. It is the responsibility of senior management to set policies that show a distinct link between organizational strategy and objectives and projects that implement those strategies. The research of Fusco suggests the implementation gap and prioritizing projects are still overlooked by many organizations. He surveyed 280 project managers and found that 24 percent of their organizations did not even publish or circulate their objectives; in addition, 40 percent of the respondents reported that priorities among competing projects were not clear, while only 17 percent reported clear priorities.4
Problem 2: Organization Politics Politics exist in every organization and can have a significant influence on which projects receive funding and high priority. This is especially true when the criteria and process for selecting projects are illdefined and not aligned with the mission of the firm. Project selection may be based not so much on facts and sound reasoning, but rather on the persuasiveness and power of people advocating projects. The term “sacred cow” is often used to denote a project that a powerful, highranking official is advocating.
Case in point, a marketing consultant confided that he was once hired by the marketing director of a large firm to conduct an independent, external market analysis for a new product the firm was interested in developing. His extensive research indicated that there was insufficient demand to warrant the financing of this new product. The marketing director chose to bury the report and made the consultant promise never to share this information with anyone. The director explained that this new product was the “pet idea” of the new
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CEO, who saw it as his legacy to the firm. He went on to describe the CEO’s irrational obsession with the project and how he referred to it as his “new baby.” Like a parent fiercely protecting his child, the marketing director believed that he would lose his job if such critical information ever became known. Project sponsors play a significant role in the selection and successful implementation of product innovation
projects. Project sponsors are typically highranking managers who endorse and lend political support for the completion of a specific project. They are instrumental in winning approval of the project and in protecting the project during the critical development stage. The importance of project sponsors should not be taken lightly. For example, a PMI global survey of over 1,000 project practitioners and leaders over a variety of industries found those organizations having active sponsors on at least 80 percent of their projects/programs have a success rate of 75 percent, eleven percentage points above the survey average of 64 percent. Many promising projects have failed to succeed due to lack of strong sponsorship.5 The significance of corporate politics can be seen in the illfated ALTO computer project at Xerox during the
mid1970s.6 The project was a tremendous technological success; it developed the first workable mouse, the first laser printer, the first userfriendly software, and the first local area network. All of these developments were five years ahead of their nearest competitor. Over the next five years this opportunity to dominate the nascent personal computer market was squandered because of internal infighting at Xerox and the absence of a strong project sponsor. (Apple’s MacIntosh computer was inspired by many of these developments.) Politics can play a role not only in project selection but also in the aspirations behind projects. Individuals
can enhance their power within an organization by managing extraordinary and critical projects. Power and status naturally accrue to successful innovators and risk takers rather than to steady producers. Many ambitious managers pursue highprofile projects as a means for moving quickly up the corporate ladder. Many would argue that politics and project management should not mix. A more proactive response is that
projects and politics invariably mix and that effective project managers recognize that any significant project has political ramifications. Likewise, top management needs to develop a system for identifying and selecting projects that reduces the impact of internal politics and fosters the selection of the best projects for achieving the mission and strategy of the firm.
Problem 3: Resource Conflicts and Multitasking Most project organizations exist in a multiproject environment. This environment creates the problems of project interdependency and the need to share resources. For example, what would be the impact on the labor resource pool of a construction company if it should win a contract it would like to bid on? Will existing labor be adequate to deal with the new project—given the completion date? Will current projects be delayed? Will subcontracting help? Which projects will have priority? Competition among project managers can be contentious. All project managers seek to have the best people for their projects. The problems of sharing resources and scheduling resources across projects grow exponentially as the
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number of projects rises. In multiproject environments the stakes are higher and the benefits or penalties for good or bad resource scheduling become even more significant than in most single projects. Resource sharing also leads to multitasking. Multitasking involves starting and stopping work on one task to
go and work on another project, and then returning to the work on the original task. People working on several tasks concurrently are far less efficient, especially where conceptual or physical shutdown and startup are significant. Multitasking adds to delays and costs. Changing priorities exacerbate the multitasking problems even more. Likewise, multitasking is more evident in organizations that have too many projects for the resources they command. The number of small and large projects in a portfolio almost always exceeds the available resources (typically
by a factor of three to four times the available resources). This capacity overload inevitably leads to confusion and inefficient use of scarce organizational resources. The presence of an implementation gap, of power politics, and of multitasking adds to the problem of which projects are allocated resources first. Employee morale and confidence suffer because it is difficult to make sense of an ambiguous system. A multiproject organization environment faces major problems without a priority system that is clearly linked to the strategic plan. In essence, to this point we have suggested that many organizations have no meaningful process for
addressing the problems we have described. The first and most important change that will go a long way in addressing these and other problems is the development and use of a meaningful project priority process for project selection. How can the implementation gap be narrowed so that understanding and consensus of organizational
strategies run through all levels of management? How can power politics be minimized? Can a process be developed in which projects are consistently prioritized to support organizational strategies? Can the prioritized projects be used to allocate scarce organizational resources—for example, people, equipment? Can the process encourage bottomup initiation of projects that support clear organizational targets? What is needed is a set of integrative criteria and a process for evaluating and selecting projects that support
higherlevel strategies and objectives. A singleproject priority system that ranks projects by their contribution to the strategic plan would make life easier. Easily said, but difficult to accomplish in practice. Organizations that managed independent projects and allocated resources ad hoc have shifted focus to selecting the right portfolio of projects to achieve their strategic objectives. This is a quickening trend. The advantages of successful project portfolio systems are becoming well recognized in projectdriven organizations. See Exhibit 2.2, which lists a few key benefits; the list could easily be extended. A project portfolio system is discussed next with emphasis on selection criteria, which is where the power of
the portfolio system is established.
EXHIBIT 2.2 Benefits of Project Portfolio Management
Builds discipline into project selection process. Links project selection to strategic metrics. Prioritizes project proposals across a common set of criteria, rather than on politics or emotion. Allocates resources to projects that align with strategic direction. Balances risk across all projects. Justifies killing projects that do not support organization strategy. Improves communication and supports agreement on project goals.
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A Portfolio Management System Succinctly put, the aim of portfolio management is to ensure that projects are aligned with strategic goals and prioritized appropriately. As Foti points out, portfolio management asks “What is strategic to our organization?” (2002) Portfolio management provides information that allows people to make better business decisions. Since projects clamoring for funding and people usually outnumber available resources, it is important to follow a logical and defined process for selecting the projects to implement. Design of a project portfolio system should include classification of a project, selection criteria depending
upon classification, sources of proposals, evaluating proposals, and managing the portfolio of projects.
Classification of the Project Many organizations find they have three basic kinds of projects in their portfolio: compliance (emergency— must do), operational, and strategic projects. (See Figure 2.2.) Compliance projects are typically those needed to meet regulatory conditions required to operate in a region; hence, they are called “must do” projects. Emergency projects, such as building an auto parts factory destroyed by tsunami, is an example of a mustdo project. Compliance and emergency projects usually have penalties if they are not implemented. Operational projects are those that are needed to support current operations. These projects are designed to improve efficiency of delivery systems, reduce product costs, and improve performance. Some of these projects, given their limited scope and cost, require only immediate manager approval, while bigger, more expensive projects need extensive review. Choosing to install a new piece of equipment would be an example of the latter while modifying a production process would be an example of the former. Total quality management (TQM) projects are examples of operational projects. Finally, strategic projects are those that directly support the organization’s longrun mission. They frequently are directed toward increasing revenue or market share. Examples of strategic projects are new products, research, and development. For a good, complete discussion on classification schemes found in practice, see Crawford, Hobbs, and Turne. Frequently, these three classifications are further decomposed by product type, organization divisions and
functions that will require different criteria for project selection. For example, the same criteria for the finance or legal division would not apply to the IT (information technology) department. This often requires different project selection criteria within the basic three classifications of strategic, operational, and compliance projects.
FIGURE 2.2 Portfolio of Projects by Type
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Selection Criteria Although there are many criteria for selecting projects, selection criteria are typically identified as financial and nonfinancial. A short description of each is given next, followed by a discussion of their use in practice.
Financial Criteria Financial Models For most managers financial criteria are the preferred method to evaluate projects. These models are appropriate when there is a high level of confidence associated with estimates of future cash flows. Two models and examples are demonstrated here—payback and net present value (NPV).
Project A has an initial investment of $700,000 and projected cash inflows of $225,000 for 5 years. Project B has an initial investment of $400,000 and projected cash inflows of $110,000 for 5 years.
1. The payback model measures the time it will take to recover the project investment. Shorter paybacks are more desirable. Payback is the simplest and most widely used model. Payback emphasizes cash flows, a key factor in business. Some managers use the payback model to eliminate unusually risky projects (those with lengthy payback periods). The major limitations of payback are that it ignores the time value of money, assumes cash inflows for the investment period (and not beyond), and does not consider profitability. The payback formula is
Exhibit 2.3 compares the payback for Project A and Project B. The payback for Project A is 3.1 years and for Project B is 3.6 years. Using the payback method both projects are acceptable since both return the initial investment in less than five years and have returns on the investment of 32.1 and 27.5 percent. Payback provides especially useful information for firms concerned with liquidity and having sufficient resources to manage their financial obligations. Exhibit 2.3 A presents the net present value model.
2. The net present value (NPV) model uses management’s minimum desired rateofreturn (discount rate, for example, 20 percent) to compute the present value of all net cash inflows. If the result is positive (the project meets the minimum desired rate of return), it is eligible for further consideration. If the result is negative, the project is rejected. Thus, higher positive NPV’s are desirable. Excel uses this formula
I0 = Initial investment (since it is an outflow, the number will be negative) Ft = Net cash inflow for period t k = Required rate of return
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EXHIBIT 2.3 Example Comparing Two Projects Using Payback and Net Present Value Method
Exhibit 2.3B presents the NPV model using Microsoft Excel software. The NPV model accepts project A, which has a positive NPV of $54,235. Project B is rejected since the NPV is negative $31,263. Compare the NPV results with the payback results. The NPV model is more realistic because it considers the time value of money, cash flows, and profitability. When using the NPV model, the discount rate (return on investment hurdle rate) can differ for different
projects. For example, the expected ROI on strategic projects is frequently set higher than operational projects. Similarly, ROI’s can differ for riskier versus safer projects. The criteria for setting the ROI hurdle rate should be clear and applied consistently.
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Unfortunately, pure financial models fail to include many projects where financial return is impossible to measure and/or other factors are vital to the accept or reject decision. One research study by Foti showed that companies using predominantly financial models to prioritize projects yielded unbalanced portfolios and projects that aren’t strategically oriented (2003).
Nonfinancial Criteria Financial return, while important, does not always reflect strategic importance. The sixties and seventies saw firms become overextended by diversifying too much. Now the prevailing thinking is that longterm survival is dependent upon developing and maintaining core competencies. Companies have to be disciplined in saying no to potentially profitable projects that are outside the realm of their core mission. This requires other criteria be considered beyond direct financial return. For example, a firm may support projects that do not have high profit margins for other strategic reasons including:
To capture larger market share To make it difficult for competitors to enter the market To develop an enabler product, which by its introduction will increase sales in more profitable products To develop core technology that will be used in nextgeneration products To reduce dependency on unreliable suppliers To prevent government intervention and regulation
Less tangible criteria may also apply. Organizations may support projects to restore corporate image or enhance brand recognition. Many organizations are committed to corporate citizenship and support community development projects. Since no single criterion can reflect strategic significance, portfolio management requires multicriteria
screening models. These models often weight individual criteria so those projects that contribute to the most important strategic objectives are given higher consideration.
Two MultiCriteria Selection Models Since no single criterion can reflect strategic significance, portfolio management requires multicriteria screening models. Two models, the checklist and multiweighted scoring models, are described next.
Checklist Models The most frequently used method in selecting projects has been the checklist. This approach basically uses a list of questions to review potential projects and to determine their acceptance or rejection. Several of the typical questions found in practice are listed in Exhibit 2.4. One large, multiproject organization has 250 different questions! A justification of checklist models is that they allow great flexibility in selecting among many different types
of projects and are easily used across different divisions and locations. Although many projects are selected using some variation of the checklist approach, this approach has serious shortcomings. Major shortcomings of this approach are that it fails to answer the relative importance or value of a potential project to the organization and fails to allow for comparison with other potential projects. Each potential project will have a different set of positive and negative answers. How do you compare? Ranking and prioritizing projects by their importance is difficult, if not impossible. This approach also leaves the door open to the potential opportunity for power plays, politics, and other forms of manipulation. To overcome these serious shortcomings experts recommend the use of a multiweighted scoring model to select projects, which is examined next.
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EXHIBIT 2.4 Sample Selection Questions Used in Practice
Topic Question Strategy/alignment What specific organization strategy does this project align with? Driver What business problem does the project solve? Success metrics How will we measure success? Sponsorship Who is the project sponsor? Risk What is the impact of not doing this project? Risk What is the project risk to our organization? Risk Where does the proposed project fit in our risk profile? Benefits, value, ROI What is the value of the project to this organization? Benefits, value, ROI When will the project show results? Objectives What are the project objectives? Organization culture Is our organization culture right for this type of project? Resources Will internal resources be available for this project? Approach Will we build or buy? Schedule How long will this project take? Schedule Is the time line realistic? Training/resources Will staff training be required? Finance/portfolio What is the estimated cost of the project? Portfolio Is this a new initiative or part of an existing initiative? Portfolio How does this project interact with current projects? Technology Is the technology available or new?
MultiWeighted Scoring Models A weighted scoring model typically uses several weighted selection criteria to evaluate project proposals. Weighted scoring models will generally include qualitative and/or quantitative criteria. Each selection criterion is asssigned a weight. Scores are assigned to each criterion for the project, based on its importance to the project being evaluated. The weights and scores are multiplied to get a total weighted score for the project. Using these multiple screening criteria, projects can then be compared using the weighted score. Projects with higher weighted scores are considered better. Selection criteria need to mirror the critical success factors of an organization. For example, 3M set a target
that 25 percent of the company’s sales would come from products fewer than four years old versus the old target of 20 percent. Their priority system for project selection strongly reflects this new target. On the other hand, failure to pick the right factors will render the screening process “useless” in short order. See Snapshot from Practice: Crisis IT. Figure 2.3 represents a project scoring matrix using some of the factors found in practice. The screening
criteria selected are shown across the top of the matrix (e.g., stay within core competencies … ROI of 18 percent plus). Management weights each criterion (a value of 0 to a high of, say, 3) by its relative importance to the organization’s objectives and strategic plan. Project proposals are then submitted to a project priority team or project office.
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SNAPSHOT FROM PRACTICE Crisis IT
In May 2007, Frontier Airlines Holdings hired Gerry Coady as chief information officer (CIO). Nearly a year later the airline filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 11. In an interview Coady describes how he managed IT projects during the bankruptcy and recession crisis of 2008–2009. Fundamentally, Coady faced a situation of too many projects and too few resources. Coady used a strategy of
focusing on reducing the number of projects in the portfolio. He put together a steering committee of senior management that reviewed several hundred projects. The end result was a reduction to less than 30 projects remaining in the portfolio.
How Can You Get to a Backlog of over 100 Projects? “There are never enough resources to get everything done.” Backlogs build over time. Sacred cow projects get included in the selection system. Projects proposed from people who have left the airline still reside in the project portfolio. Nonvalueadded projects somehow make their way into the project portfolio. Soon the queue gets longer. With everyone in IT working on too many projects concurrently, project completion and productivity are slow.
Which Projects Remain? To cut the number of projects, the steering committee used a weighting scheme that reflected the airline’s priorities, which were: fly safe, generate revenue, reduce costs, and customer service. The weighting scheme easily weeded out the fluff. Coady noted that “by the time you get to the 20s the margin of differentiation gets narrower and narrower.” Of the remaining projects, project sponsors had to have solid justification why their project is important. Reduction of the number of projects places emphasis on high value projects.
© PRNewsFoto/Genesis, Inc.
What Advice Does Coady Have for Crisis Management? In times of crisis, it is easier to take bold steps to make changes. But you need to have a clear vision of what you should be focusing on with the resources available. Coady suggests, “It comes back to really having a good idea of what the initial business case for a project is and what resources it is consuming, both people and otherwise.”
Source: Worthen, B., “Crisis IT,” The Wall Street Journal, April 20, 2009, pR6.
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FIGURE 2.3 Project Screening Matrix
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Each project proposal is then evaluated by its relative contribution/value added to the selected criteria. Values of 0 to a high of 10 are assigned to each criterion for each project. This value represents the project’s fit to the specific criterion. For example, project 1 appears to fit well with the strategy of the organization since it is given a value of 8. Conversely, project 1 does nothing to support reducing defects (its value is 0). Finally, this model applies the management weights to each criterion by importance using a value of 1 to 3. For example, ROI and strategic fit have a weight of 3, while urgency and core competencies have weights of 2. Applying the weight to each criterion, the priority team derives the weighted total points for each project. For example, project 5 has the highest value of 102 [(2 × 1) + (3 × 10) + (2 × 5) + (2.5 × 10) + (1 × 0) + (1 × 8) + (3 × 9) = 102] and project 2 has a low value of 27. If the resources available create a cutoff threshold of 50 points, the priority team would eliminate projects 2 and 4. (Note: Project 4 appears to have some urgency, but it is not classified as a “must” project. Therefore, it is screened with all other proposals.) Project 5 would receive first priority, project n second, and so on. In rare cases where resources are severely limited and project proposals are similar in weighted rank, it is prudent to pick the project placing less demand on resources. Weighted multiple criteria models similar to this one are rapidly becoming the dominant choice for prioritizing projects. At this point in the discussion it is wise to stop and put things into perspective. While selection models like
the one above may yield numerical solutions to project selection decisions, models should not make the final decisions—the people using the models should. No model, no matter how sophisticated, can capture the total reality it is meant to represent. Models are tools for guiding the evaluation process so that the decisionmakers will consider relevant issues and reach a meeting of the minds as to which projects should be supported and not supported. This is a much more subjective process than calculations suggest.
Applying a Selection Model Project Classification It is not necessary to have exactly the same criteria for the different types of projects discussed above (strategic and operations). However, experience shows most organizations use similar criteria across all types of projects, with perhaps one or two criteria specific to the type of project—e.g., strategic breakthrough versus operational. Regardless of criteria differences among different types of projects, the most important criterion for selection
is the project’s fit to the organization strategy. Therefore, this criterion should be consistent across all types of projects and carry a high priority relative to other criteria. This uniformity across all priority models used can keep departments from suboptimizing the use of organization resources. Anyone generating a project proposal should classify their proposal by type, so the appropriate criteria can be used to evaluate their proposal.
Selecting a Model In the past, financial criteria were used almost to the exclusion of other criteria. However, in the last two decades we have witnessed a dramatic shift to include multiple criteria in project selection. Concisely put,
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profitability alone is simply not an adequate measure of contribution; however, it is still an important criterion, especially for projects that enhance revenue and market share such as breakthrough R&D projects. Today, senior management is interested in identifying the potential mix of projects that will yield the best use
of human and capital resources to maximize return on investment in the long run. Factors such as researching new technology, public image, ethical position, protection of the environment, core competencies, and strategic fit might be important criteria for selecting projects. Weighted scoring criteria seem the best alternative to meet this need. Weighted scoring models result in bringing projects to closer alignment with strategic goals. If the scoring
model is published and available to everyone in the organization, some discipline and credibility are attached to the selection of projects. The number of wasteful projects using resources is reduced. Politics and “sacred cow” projects are exposed. Project goals are more easily identified and communicated using the selection criteria as corroboration. Finally, using a weighted scoring approach helps project managers understand how their project was selected, how their project contributes to organization goals, and how it compares with other projects. Project selection is one of the most important decisions guiding the future success of an organization. Criteria for project selection are the area where the power of your portfolio starts to manifest itself. New
projects are aligned with the strategic goals of the organization. With a clear method for selecting projects in place, project proposals can be solicited.
Sources and Solicitation of Project Proposals As you would guess, projects should come from anyone who believes his or her project will add value to the organization. However, many organizations restrict proposals from specific levels or groups within the organization. This could be an opportunity lost. Good ideas are not limited to certain types or classes of organization stakeholders. Encourage and keep solicitations open to all sources—internal and external sponsors. Figure 2.4A provides an example of a proposal form for an automatic vehicular tracking (Automatic Vehicle
Location) public transportation project. Figure 2.4B presents a preliminary risk analysis for a 500acre wind farm. Many organizations use risk analysis templates to gain a quick insight of a project’s inherent risks. Risk factors depend on the organization and type of projects. This information is useful in balancing the project portfolio and identifying major risks when executing the project. Project risk analysis is the subject of Chapter 7. In some cases organizations will solicit ideas for projects when the knowledge requirements for the project
are not available in the organization. Typically, the organization will issue an RFP (Request for Proposal) to contractors/vendors with adequate experience to implement the project. In one example, a hospital published an RFP that asked for a bid to design and build a new operating room that uses the latest technology. Several architecture firms submitted bids to the hospital. The bids for the project were evaluated internally against other potential projects. When the project was accepted as a go, other criteria were used to select the best qualified bidder. See Appendix 2.1 of this chapter for a complete description of requests for proposal (RFP).
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FIGURE 2.4A A Proposal Form for an Automatic Vehicular Tracking (AVL) Public Transportation Project.
Ranking Proposals and Selection of Projects
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Culling through so many proposals to identify those that add the most value requires a structured process. Figure 2.5 shows a flow chart of a screening process beginning with the creation of an idea for a project. See template for evaluating contractors in Appendix 2.1. Data and information are collected to assess the value of the proposed project to the organization and for
future backup. If the sponsor decides to pursue the project on the basis of the collected data, it is forwarded to the project priority team (or the project office). Note that the sponsor knows which criteria will be used to accept or reject the project. Given the selection criteria and current portfolio of projects, the priority team rejects or accepts the project. If the project is accepted, the priority team sets implementation in motion.
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FIGURE 2.4B Risk Analysis for a 500Acre Wind Farm
Figure 2.6 is a partial example of an evaluation form used by a large company to prioritize and select new projects. The form distinguishes between must and want objectives. If a project does not meet designated “must” objectives, it is not considered and removed from consideration. Organization (or division) objectives have been ranked and weighted by their relative importance—for example, “Improve external customer service” carries a relative weight of 83 when compared to other want objectives. The want objectives are directly linked to objectives found in the strategic plan. Impact definitions represent a further refinement to the screening system. They are developed to gauge the
predicted impact a specific project would have on meeting a particular objective. A numeric scheme is created and anchored by defining criteria. To illustrate how this works, let’s examine the $5 million in new sales objective. A “0” is assigned if the project will have no impact on sales or less than $100,000, a “1” is given if predicted sales are more than $100,000 but less than $500,000, a “2” if greater than $500,000. These impact assessments are combined with the relative importance of each objective to determine the predicted overall contribution of a project to strategic objectives. For example, project 26 creates an opportunity to fix field problems, has no effect on sales, and will have major impact on customer service. On these three objectives,
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project 26 would receive a score of 265 [99 + 0 + (2 × 83)]. Individual weighted scores are totaled for each project and are used to prioritize projects.
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FIGURE 2.5 Project Screening Process
Responsibility for Prioritizing Prioritizing can be an uncomfortable exercise for managers. But prioritizing projects is a major responsibility for senior management. Prioritizing means discipline, accountability, responsibility, constraints, reduced flexibility, and loss of power. Top management commitment means more than giving a blessing to the priority system; it means management will have to rank and weigh, in concrete terms, the objectives and strategies they believe to be most critical to the organization. This public declaration of commitment can be risky if the ranked objectives later prove to be poor choices, but setting the course for the organization is top management’s job. The good news is, if management is truly trying to direct the organization to a strong future position, a good project priority system supports their efforts and develops a culture in which everyone is contributing to the goals of the organization.
Managing the Portfolio System Managing the portfolio takes the selection system one step higher in that the merits of a particular project are assessed within the context of existing projects. At the same time it involves monitoring and adjusting selection criteria to reflect the strategic focus of the organization. This requires constant effort. The priority system can be managed by a small group of key employees in a small organization. Or, in larger organizations, the priority system can be managed by the project office or a governance team of senior managers.
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FIGURE 2.6 Priority Screening Analysis
Senior Management Input Management of a portfolio system requires two major inputs from senior management. First, senior management must provide guidance in establishing selection criteria that strongly align with the current organization strategies. Second, senior management must annually decide how they wish to balance the available organizational resources (people and capital) among the different types of projects. A preliminary decision of balance must be made by top management (e.g., 20 percent compliance, 50 percent strategic, and 30 percent operational) before project selection takes place, although the balance may be changed when the projects submitted are reviewed. Given these inputs the priority team or project office can carry out its
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many responsibilities, which include supporting project sponsors and representing the interests of the total organization.
The Governance Team Responsibilities The governance team, or project office, is responsible for publishing the priority of every project and ensuring the process is open and free of power politics. For example, most organizations using a governance team or project office use an electronic bulletin board to disperse the current portfolio of projects, the current status of each project, and current issues. This open communication discourages power plays. Over time the governance team evaluates the progress of the projects in the portfolio. If this whole process is managed well, it can have a profound impact on the success of an organization. Constant scanning of the external environment to determine if organizational focus and/or selection criteria
need to be changed is imperative! Periodic priority review and changes need to keep current with the changing environment and keep a unified vision of organization focus. Regardless of the criteria used for selection, each project should be evaluated by the same criteria. If projects are classified by must do, operation, and strategic, each project in its class should be evaluated by the same criteria. Enforcing the project priority system is crucial. Keeping the whole system open and aboveboard is important to maintaining the integrity of the system and keeping new, young executives from going around the system. For example, communicating which projects are approved, project ranks, current status of inprocess projects, and any changes in priority criteria will discourage people from bypassing the system.
Balancing the Portfolio for Risks and Types of Projects A major responsibility of the priority team is to balance projects by type, risk, and resource demand. This requires a total organization perspective. Hence, a proposed project that ranks high on most criteria may not be selected because the organization portfolio already includes too many projects with the same characteristics— e.g., project risk level, use of key resources, high cost, nonrevenue producing, long durations. Balancing the portfolio of projects is as important as project selection. Organizations need to evaluate each new project in terms of what it adds to the project mix. Shortterm needs need to be balanced with longterm potential. Resource usage needs to be optimized across all projects, not just the most important project. Two types of risk are associated with projects. First are risks associated with the total portfolio of projects,
which should reflect the organization’s risk profile. Second are specific project risks that can inhibit the execution of a project, such as schedule, cost, and technical. In this chapter we look only to balancing the organizational risks inherent in the project portfolio, such as market risk, ability to execute, time to market, and technology advances. Projectspecific risks will be covered in detail in Chapter 7. David and Jim Matheson studied R&D organizations and developed a classification scheme that could be
used for assessing a project portfolio.7 They separated projects in terms of degree of difficulty and commercial value and came up with four basic types of projects:
Bread and butter projects are relatively easy to accomplish and produce modest commercial value. They typically involve evolutionary improvements to
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current products and services. Examples include software upgrades and manufacturing cost reduction efforts. Pearls are low risk development projects with high commercial payoffs. They represent revolutionary commercial advances using proven technology. Examples include nextgeneration integrated circuit chip and subsurface imaging to locate oil and gas. Oysters are high risk, high value projects. These projects involve technological breakthroughs with tremendous, commercial potential. Examples include embryonic DNA treatments and new kinds of metal alloys. White elephants are projects that at one time showed promise but are no longer viable. Examples include products for a saturated market or a potent energy source with toxicsideeffects.
The Mathesons report that organizations often have too many white elephants and too few pearls and oysters. To maintain strategic advantage they recommend that organizations capitalize on pearls, eliminate or reposition white elephants, and balance resources devoted to breadandbutter and oyster projects to achieve alignment with overall strategy. Although their research centers on R&D organizations, their observations appear to hold true for all types of project organizations.
Summary
Multiple competing projects, limited skilled resources, dispersed virtual teams, time to market pressures, and limited capital serve as forces for the emergence of project portfolio management that provides the infrastructure for managing multiple projects and linking business strategy with project selection. The most important element of this system is the creation of a ranking system that utilizes multiple criteria that reflect the mission and strategy of the firm. It is critical to communicate priority criteria to all organizational stakeholders so that the criteria can be the source of inspiration for new project ideas. Every significant project selected should be ranked and the results published. Senior management must take
an active role in setting priorities and supporting the priority system. Going around the priority system will destroy its effectiveness. The project governance team needs to consist of seasoned managers who are capable of asking tough questions and distinguishing facts from fiction. Resources (people, equipment, and capital) for major projects must be clearly allocated and not conflict with daily operations or become an overload task. The governance team needs to scrutinize significant projects in terms of not only their strategic value but also
their fit with the portfolio of projects currently being implemented. Highly ranked projects may be deferred or even turned down if they upset the current balance among risks, resources, and strategic initiatives. Project selection must be based not only on the merits of the specific project but also on what it contributes to the current project portfolio mix. This requires a holistic approach to aligning projects with organizational strategy and resources. The importance of aligning projects with organization strategy cannot be overstated. We have discussed two
types of models found in practice. Checklist models are easy to develop and are justified primarily on the basis of flexibility across different divisions and locations. Unfortunately, questionnaire checklist models do not allow comparison of the relative value (rank) of alternative projects in contributing toward organization strategy. The latter is the major reason
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the authors prefer multiweighted scoring models. These models keep project selection highly focused on alignment with organization strategy. Weighted scoring models require major effort in establishing the criteria and weights.
Key Terms Implementation gap, 33 Net present value, 37 Organization politics, 33 Payback, 37 Priority system, 32 Priority team, 40 Project portfolio, 32 Project screening matrix, 41 Sacred cow, 33 Strategic management process, 28
Review Questions
1. Describe the major components of the strategic management process. 2. Explain the role projects play in the strategic management process. 3. How are projects linked to the strategic plan? 4. The portfolio of projects is typically represented by compliance, strategic, and operations projects. What impact can this classification have on project selection?
5. Why does the priority system described in this chapter require that it be open and published? Does the process encourage bottomup initiation of projects? Does it discourage some projects? Why?
6. Why should an organization not rely only on ROI to select projects? 7. Discuss the pros and cons of the checklist versus the weighted factor method of selecting projects.
Exercises
1. You manage a hotel resort located on the South Beach on the Island of Kauai in Hawaii. You are shifting the focus of your resort from a traditional funinthesun destination to ecotourism. (Eco tourism focuses on environmental awareness and education.) How would you classify the following projects in terms of compliance, strategic, and operational?
a. Convert the pool heating system from electrical to solar power. b. Build a 4mile nature hiking trail. c. Renovate the horse barn. d. Launch a new promotional campaign with Hawaii Airlines. e. Convert 12 adjacent acres into a wildlife preserve. f. Update all the bathrooms in condos that are 10 years old or older. g. Change hotel brochures to reflect ecotourism image. h. Test and revise disaster response plan. i. Introduce wireless Internet service in café and lounge areas.
How easy was it to classify these projects? What made some projects more difficult than others? What do you think you now know that would be useful for managing projects at the hotel?
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2. * Two new software projects are proposed to a young, startup company. The Alpha project will cost $150,000 to develop and is expected to have annual net cash flow of $40,000. The Beta project will cost $200,000 to develop and is expected to have annual net cash flow of $50,000. The company is very concerned about their cash flow. Using the payback period, which project is better from a cash flow standpoint? Why?
3. A fiveyear project has a projected net cash flow of $15,000, $25,000, $30,000, $20,000, and $15,000 in the next five years. It will cost $50,000 to implement the project. If the required rate of return is 20 percent, conduct a discounted cash flow calculation to determine the NPV.
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4. You work for the 3T company, which expects to earn at least 18 percent on its investments. You have to choose between two similar projects. Below is the cash information for each project. Your analysts predict that inflation rate will be a stable 3 percent over the next 7 years. Which of the two projects would you fund if the decision is based only on financial information? Why?
5. * You are the head of the project selection team at SIMSOX. Your team is considering three different projects. Based on past history, SIMSOX expects at least a rate of return of 20 percent. Your financial advisors predict inflation to remain at 3 percent into the foreseeable future. Given the following information for each project, which one should be SIMSOX first priority?
Should SIMSOX fund any of the other projects? If so, what should be the order of priority based on return on investment?
Project: Dust Devils
Project: Ospry
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Project: Voyagers
6. You are the head of the project selection team at Broken Arrow records. Your team is considering three different recording projects. Based on past history, Broken Arrow expects at least a rate of return of 20 percent. Your financial advisors predict inflation to remain at 2 percent into the foreseeable future. Given the following information for each project, which one should be Broken Arrow’s first
priority? Should Broken Arrow fund any of the other projects? If so, what should be the order of priority based on return on investment?
Recording Project: Time Fades Away
Recording Project: On the Beach
Recording Project: Tonight’s the Night
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7. The Custom Bike Company has set up a weighted scoring matrix for evaluation of potential projects. Below are five projects under consideration.
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a. Using the scoring matrix below, which project would you rate highest? Lowest?
b. If the weight for “Strong Sponsor” is changed from 2.0 to 5.0, will the project selection change? What are the three highest weighted project scores with this new weight?
c. Why is it important that the weights mirror critical strategic factors?
Project Screening Matrix
References Adler, P. S., et al., “Getting the Most Out of Your Product Development Process,” Harvard Business Review, vol. 74 (2), pp. 134–52. Benko, C., and F. W. McFarlan, Connecting the Dots: Aligning Projects With Objectives in Unpredictable Times (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2003). Bigelow, D., “Want to Ensure Quality? Think Project Portfolio Management,” PM Network, vol. 16 (1) April 2002, pp. 16–17. Bloomberg Businessweek, “IBM Wants to Put Watson in Your Pocket,” September 17–23, 2012, pp. 41– 42. Boyer, C., “Make Profit Your Priority,” PM Network, vol. 15 (10) October 2003, pp. 37–42. Cohen, D., and R. Graham, The Project Manager’s MBA (San Francisco: JosseyBass, 2001), pp. 58– 59. Crawford, L., B. Hobbs, and J. R. Turne, “Aligning Capability with Strategy: Categorizing of Projects to Do the Right Projects and Do Them Right,” Project Management Journal, vol. 37 (2) June 2006, pp. 38–50. Descamps, J. P., “Mastering the Dance of Change: Innovation as a Way of Life,” Prism, Second Quarter, 1999, pp. 61–67.
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Doran, G. T., “There’s a Smart Way to Write Management Goals and Objectives,” Management Review, November 1981, pp. 35–36. Floyd, S. W., and B. Woolridge, “Managing Strategic Consensus: The Foundation of Effectiveness Implementation,” Academy of Management Executives, vol. 6 (4) 1992, pp. 27–39. Foti, R., “Louder Than Words,” PM Network, December 2002, pp. 22–29. Also see Foti, R., “Make Your Case, Not All Projects Are Equal,” PM Network, vol. 31(7) 2003, pp. 35–43. Frank, L., “On Demand,” PM Network, vol. 18 (4) April 2004, pp. 58–62. Friedman, Thomas L., Hot, Flat, and Crowded (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2008). Fusco, J. C., “Better Policies Provide the Key to Implementing Project Management,” Project Management Journal, vol. 28 (3) 1997, pp. 38–41. Helm, J., and K. Remington, “Effective Project Sponsorship: An Evaluation of the Executive Sponsor in Complex Infrastructure Projects by Senior Project Managers,” Project Management Journal, vol. 36 (1) September 2005, pp. 51–61. Hutchens, G., “Doing the Numbers,” PM Network, vol. 16 (4) March 2002, p. 20. Johnson, R. E., “Scrap Capital Project Evaluations,” Chief Financial Officer, May 1998, p. 14. Kaplan, R. S., and D. P. Norton, “The Balanced Scorecard—Measures That Drive Performance,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1992, pp. 73–79. Also see Kaplan, Robert, http;//balancedscorecard.org. Kenny, J., “Effective Project Management for Strategic Innovation and Change in an Organizational Context,” Project Management Journal, vol. 34 (1) 2003, pp. 45–53. Kharbanda, O. P., and J. K. Pinto, What Made Gertie Gallop: Learning from Project Failures (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996), pp. 106–11, 263–83. Korte, R. F., and T. J. Chermack, “Changing Organizational Culture with Scenario Planning,” Futures, vol. 39 (6) August 2007, pp. 645–56. Leifer, R., C. M. McDermott, G. C. O’Connor, L. S. Peters, M. Price, and R. W. Veryzer, Radical Innovation: How Mature Companies Can Outsmart Upstarts (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000). MacIntyre, J., PM Network, vol. 20 (11) November 2006, pp. 32–35. Magretta, Joan, Understanding Michael Porter: The Essential Guide to Competition and Strategy (Boston: Harvard Business Press Book, 2011). Matheson, D., and J. Matheson, The Smart Organization (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998), pp. 203–09. Milosevic, D. Z., and S. Srivannaboon, “A Theoretical Framework for Aligning Project Management with Business Strategy,” Project Management Journal, vol. 37 (3) August 2006, pp. 98–110. Morris, P. W., and A. Jamieson, “Moving from Corporate Strategy to Project Strategy,” Project Management Journal, vol. 36 (4) December 2005, pp. 5–18.
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Motta, Silva, and Rogério Hermida Quintella, “Assessment of NonFinancial Criteria in the Selection of Investment Projects for Seed Capital Funding: The Contribution of Scientometrics and Patentometrics,” Journal of Technology Management Innovation, vol. 7 (3) 2012. PMI, “PMI’s Pulse of the Profession,” March 2012, Project Management Institute, p. 7. Raskin, P., et al., Great Transitions: The Promise and Lure of the Times Ahead, retrieved 6308. See www.gtinitiative.org/documents/Great_Transitions.pdf Schwartz, Peter, and Doug Randall, “An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and its Implications for United States National Security,” Global Business Network, Inc., October 2003. Shenhar, A., “Strategic Project Leadership: Focusing Your Project on Business Success,” Proceedings of the Project Management Institute Annual Seminars & Symposium, San Antonio, Texas, October 3– 10, 2002, CD. Also see Shenhar, Aaron, Reinventing Project Management (Harvard Business School, 2007). Smith, D. K., and R. C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored the First Personal Computer (New York: Macmillan, 1988). Swanson, S., “All Things Considered,” PM Network, vol. 25 (2) February 2011, pp. 36–40. Woodward, H., “Winning in a World of Limited Project Spending,” Proceedings of the Project Management Institute Global Congress North America, Baltimore, Maryland, September 18–12, 2003, CD. * The solution to these exercises can be found in Appendix One.
Case
Hector Gaming Company Hector Gaming Company (HGC) is an educational gaming company specializing in young children’s educational games. HGC has just completed their fourth year of operation. This year was a banner year for HGC. The company received a large influx of capital for growth by issuing stock privately through an investment banking firm. It appears the return on investment for this past year will be just over 25 percent with zero debt! The growth rate for the last two years has been approximately 80 percent each year. Parents and grandparents of young children have been buying HGC’s products almost as fast as they are developed. Every member of the 56person firm is enthusiastic and looking forward to helping the firm grow to be the largest and best educational gaming company in the world. The founder of the firm, Sally Peters, has been written up in Young Entrepreneurs as “the young entrepreneur to watch.” She has been able to develop an organization culture in which all stakeholders are committed to innovation, continuous improvement, and organization learning. Last year, 10 top managers of HGC worked with McKinley Consulting to develop the organization’s strategic
plan. This year the same 10 managers had a retreat
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in Aruba to formulate next year’s strategic plan using the same process suggested by McKinley Consulting. Most executives seem to have a consensus of where the firm should go in the intermediate and long term. But there is little consensus on how this should be accomplished. Peters, now president of HGC, feels she may be losing control. The frequency of conflicts seems to be increasing. Some individuals are always requested for any new project created. When resource conflicts occur among projects, each project manager believes his or her project is most important. More projects are not meeting deadlines and are coming in over budget. Yesterday’s management meeting revealed some top HGC talent have been working on an international business game for college students. This project does not fit the organization vision or market niche. At times it seems everyone is marching to his or her own drummer. Somehow more focus is needed to ensure everyone agrees on how strategy should be implemented, given the resources available to the organization. Yesterday’s meeting alarmed Peters. These emerging problems are coming at a bad time. Next week HGC is
ramping up the size of the organization, number of new products per year, and marketing efforts. Fifteen new people will join HGC next month. Peters is concerned that policies be in place that will ensure the new people are used most productively. An additional potential problem looms on the horizon. Other gaming companies have noticed the success HGC is having in their niche market; one company tried to hire a key product development employee away from HGC. Peters wants HGC to be ready to meet any potential competition head on and to discourage any new entries into their market. Peters knows HGC is project driven; however, she is not as confident that she has a good handle on how such an organization should be managed—especially with such a fast growth rate and potential competition closer to becoming a reality. The magnitude of emerging problems demands quick attention and resolution. Peters has hired you as a consultant. She has suggested the following format for your consulting contract.
You are free to use another format if it will improve the effectiveness of the consulting engagement.
What is our major problem? Identify some symptoms of the problem. What is the major cause of the problem?
Provide a detailed action plan that attacks the problem. Be specific and provide examples that relate to HGC.
Case
Film Prioritization The purpose of this case is to give you experience in using a project priority system that ranks proposed projects by their contribution to the organization’s objectives and strategic plan.
COMPANY PROFILE The company is the film division for a large entertainment conglomerate. The main office is located in Anaheim, California. In addition to the feature film division, the conglomerate includes theme parks, home videos, a television channel,
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interactive games, and theatrical productions. The company has been enjoying steady growth over the past 10 years. Last year total revenues increased by 12 percent to $21.2 billion. The company is engaged in negotiations to expand its theme park empire to mainland China and Poland. The film division generated $274 million in revenues, which was an increase of 7 percent over the past year. Profit margin was down 3 percent to 16 percent because of the poor response to three of the five major film releases for the year.
COMPANY MISSION The mission for the firm:
Our overriding objective is to create shareholder value by continuing to be the world’s premier entertainment company from a creative, strategic, and financial standpoint.
The film division supports this mission by producing four to six highquality, family entertainment films for mass distribution each year. In recent years, the CEO of the company has advocated that the firm take a leadership position in championing environmental concerns.
COMPANY “MUST” OBJECTIVES Every project must meet the must objectives as determined by executive management. It is important that selected film projects not violate such objectives of high strategic priority. There are three must objectives:
1. All projects meet current legal, safety, and environmental standards. 2. All film projects should receive a PG or lower advisory rating. 3. All projects should not have an adverse effect on current or planned operations within the larger company.
COMPANY “WANT” OBJECTIVES Want objectives are assigned weights for their relative importance. Top management is responsible for formulating, ranking, and weighting objectives to ensure that projects support the company’s strategy and mission. The following is a list of the company’s want objectives:
1. Be nominated for and win an academy award for Best Animated Feature or Best Picture of the Year. 2. Generate additional merchandise revenue (action figures, dolls, interactive games, music CDs). 3. Raise public consciousness about environmental issues and concerns. 4. Generate profit in excess of 18 percent. 5. Advance the state of the art in film animation, and preserve the firm’s reputation. 6. Provide the basis for the development of a new ride at a companyowned theme park.
ASSIGNMENT You are a member of the priority team in charge of evaluating and selecting film proposals. Use the provided evaluation form to formally evaluate and rank each proposal. Be prepared to report your rankings and justify your decisions.
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Assume that all of the projects have passed the estimated hurdle rate of 14 percent ROI. In addition to the brief film synopsis, the proposals include the following financial projections of theater and video sales: 80 percent chance of ROI, 50 percent chance of ROI, and 20 percent chance of ROI. For example, for proposal #1 (Dalai Lama) there is an 80 percent chance that it will earn at least 8 percent
return on investment (ROI), a 5050 chance the ROI will be 18 percent, and a 20 percent chance that the ROI will be 24 percent.
FILM PROPOSALS PROJECT PROPOSAL 1: MY LIFE WITH DALAI LAMA An animated, biographical account of the Dalai Lama’s childhood in Tibet based on the popular children’s book Tales from Nepal. The Lama’s life is told through the eyes of “Guoda,” a field snake, and other local animals who befriend the Dalai and help him understand the principles of Buddhism.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 2: HEIDI A remake of the classic children’s story with music written by awardwinning composers Syskle and Obert. The bigbudget film will feature topname stars and breathtaking scenery of the Swiss Alps.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 3: THE YEAR OF THE ECHO A lowbudget documentary that celebrates the career of one of the most influential bands in rockandroll history. The film will be directed by newwave director Elliot Cznerzy and will combine concert footage and behindthescenes interviews spanning the 25year history of the rock band the Echos. In addition to great music, the film will focus on the death of one of the founding members from a heroin overdose and reveal the underworld of sex, lies, and drugs in the music industry.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 4: ESCAPE FROM RIO JAPUNI An animated feature set in the Amazon rainforest. The story centers around Pablo, a young jaguar who attempts to convince warring jungle animals that they must unite and escape the devastation of local clear cutting.
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PROJECT PROPOSAL 5: NADIA! The story of Nadia Comaneci, the famous Romanian gymnast who won three gold medals at the 1976 Summer Olympic Games. The lowbudget film will document her life as a small child in Romania and how she was chosen by Romanian authorities to join their elite, staterun, athletic program. The film will highlight how Nadia maintained her independent spirit and love for gymnastics despite a harsh, regimented training program.
Project Priority Evaluation Form
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PROJECT PROPOSAL 6: KEIKO—ONE WHALE OF A STORY The story of Keiko, the famous killer whale, will be told by an imaginary offspring Seiko, who in the distant future is telling her children about their famous grandfather. The bigbudget film will integrate actual footage of the whale within a realistic animated environment using stateoftheart computer imagery. The story will reveal how Keiko responded to his treatment by humans.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 7: GRAND ISLAND The true story of a group of juniorhigh biology students who discover that a fertilizer plant is dumping toxic wastes into a nearby river. The moderatebudget film depicts how students organize a grassroots campaign to fight local bureaucracy and ultimately force the fertilizer plant to restore the local ecosystem.
Case
Fund Raising Project Selection case The purpose of this “case exercise” is to provide you with experience in using a project selection process that ranks proposed projects by their contribution to an organization’s mission and strategy.
FUND RAISING PROJECT Assume you are a member of a class on project management. Each student will join a team of 5–7 students who will be responsible for creating, planning and executing a fund raising project for a designated charity. The fund raising project has two goals: (1) raise money for a worthy cause and (2) provide an opportunity for all team members to practice project management skills and techniques. In addition to completing the project a number of deliverables are required to complete this assignment.
These deliverables include:
a) Project Proposal b) Implementation Plan c) Risk Management Plan d) Status Report e) Project Reflections Presentation f) Project Retrospective/Audit
Approved projects will receive $250 seed money to be reimbursed upon completion of the project.
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“MUST” OBJECTIVES Every project must meet the “must” objectives as determined by the instructor. There are four must objectives:
1. All projects must be safe, legal and comply with university policies. 2. All projects must be capable of earning at least $500.
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All projects must be able to be completed within nine weeks. 4. All projects must provide an opportunity for every member of the project team to experience and learn about project management.
Among the factors to consider for the last objective would be the extent there is meaningful work for every member of the team, the degree of coordination required, the extent the team will have to work with external stakeholders, and the complexity of the project.
“WANT” OBJECTIVES In addition to the must objectives, there are “want” objectives that the instructor would like to achieve. The following is a list of these objectives:
1. Earn more than $500 for a charity 2. Increase public awareness of the charity 3. Provide a resume worthy experience for students 4. Be featured on local TV news 5. Be fun to do
ASSIGNMENT You are a member of the class priority team in charge of evaluating and approving fund raising projects. Use the provided proposal evaluation form to formally evaluate and rank each proposal. Be prepared to report your rankings and justify your decision. You should assume that these projects would be held at your university or college.
FUND RAISING PROPOSALS PROJECT PROPOSAL 1: HOOPS FOR HOPE The project is a threeonthree basketball tournament to raise money for the Down Syndrome Association. The tournament will consist of three brackets: Coed, Male, and Female teams. There will be a $40 entry fee per team and additional funds will be derived from the sale of commemorative Tshirts ($10). Winning teams will receive gift baskets consisting of donations from local businesses and restaurants. The event will be held at the university recreational center.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 2: SINGING FOR SMILES The project will hold a karaoke competition with celebrity judges at a popular campus night spot. Funds will be raised by $5 admission at the door and a raffle for prizes donated by local businesses. Funds will be donated to Smile Train, an international organization that performs cleft lip surgery at a cost of $250 per child. The event will feature pictures of children born with cleft lips and with every $50 earned a piece of a picture puzzle will be added until the original picture is covered with a smiling face.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 3: HALO FOR HEROES The project will be a Halo video game competition to be held over the weekend utilizing the College’s big screen electronic classrooms. Teams of 4 players will play each other in a single elimination tournament with the grand prize being a Sony Play Station 3 donated by a local video game store. Entry fee is 24$ per team
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and individual players will be able to play in a loser’s bracket for 5$. All proceeds will go to the National Military Family Association.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 4: RAFFLE FOR LIFE Organize a raffle contest. Raffle tickets will be sold for 3$ a piece with the winning ticket worth $300. Each of the six team members will be responsible for selling 50 raffle tickets. All profits will go to the American Cancer Society.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 5: HOLD’EM FOR HUNGER Organize a Texas Hold’em poker tournament at a campus dining facility. It will cost 20$ to enter the tournament with a $15 buyin in fee. Prizes include $300, $150, and $50 gift certificates to a large department store. Gift certificates purchased from entry fees. All players will be eligible to win two donated tickets to Men and Women basketball games. Funds raised will go to local county food shelter.
PROJECT PROPOSAL 6: BUILD YOUR OWN BOX The purpose of this project is to raise awareness of plight of homeless. Students will donate ten dollars to participate in building and living in a cardboard city on the university quad for one night. Building materials will be provided by local recycling centers and hardware stores. Hot soup will be provided by the team at midnight to all participants. Proceeds for go to the local homeless shelter.
Project Priority Evaluation Form
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Appendix 2.1
Request for Proposal (RFP)
Once an organization selects a project, the customer or project manager is frequently responsible for developing a request for proposal (RFP) for the project or sections of the project. The responsible project manager will require input data from all stakeholders connected to the activities
covered in the RFP. The RFP will be announced to external contractors/vendors with adequate experience to implement the project. For example, government projects frequently advertise with a “request for proposal” to outside contractors for roads, buildings, airports, military hardware, space vehicles. Similarly, businesses use RFPs to solicit bids for building a clean room, developing a new manufacturing process, delivering software for insurance billing, conducting a market survey. In all of these examples, requirements and features must be in enough detail that contractors have a clear description of the final deliverable that will meet the customer’s needs. In most cases the RFP also specifies an expected format for the contractor’s bid proposal so the responses of different contractors can be fairly evaluated. Although we typically think of RFPs for external contractors, in some organizations RFPs are used internally; that is, the organization sends out an RFP to different divisions or departments. The content of the RFP is extremely important. In practice, the most common error is to offer an RFP that
lacks sufficient detail. This lack of detail typically results in conflict issues, misunderstandings, often legal claims between the contractor and owner, and, in addition, an unsatisfied customer. All RFPs are different, but the outline in Figure A2.1 is a good starting point for the development of a detailed RFP. Each step is briefly described next.
1. Summary of needs and request for action. The background and a simple description of the final project deliverable are given first. For example, through simulated war games, the U.S. Navy has found their giant warships of the past are too vulnerable against today’s technology (an example is the Silkworm antiship missiles). In addition, the Navy’s mission has shifted to supporting ground forces and peacekeeping missions, which require getting closer to shore. As a result, the Navy is revamping ships for nearshore duty. The Navy will select three designs for further refinement from the responses to its RFP. In general, it is expected that the new ship will be capable of at least 55 knots, measure between 80 and 250 feet in length, and be fitted with radar absorbing panels to thwart guided missiles.
FIGURE A2.1 Request for Proposal
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2. Statement of work (SOW) detailing the scope and major deliverables. For example, if the project involves a market research survey, the major deliverables could be design, data collection, data analysis, and providing recommendations by February 21, 2014, for a cost not to exceed $300,000. 3. Deliverable specifications/requirements, features, and tasks. This step should be very comprehensive
so bid proposals from contractors can be validated and later used for control. Typical specifications cover physical features such as size, quantity, materials, speed, and color. For example, an IT project might specify requirements for hardware, software, and training in great detail. Tasks required to complete deliverables can be included if they are known. 4. Responsibilities—vendor and customer. Failing to spell out the responsibilities for both parties is
notorious for leading to serious problems when the contractor implements the project. For example, who pays for what? (If the contractor is to be on site, will the contractor be required to pay for office space?) What are the limits and exclusions for the contractor? (For example, who will supply test equipment?) What communication plan will be used by the contractor and owner? If escalation of an issue becomes necessary, what process will be used? How will progress be evaluated? Welldefined responsibilities will avoid many unforeseen problems later. 5. Project schedule. This step is concerned with getting a “hard” schedule which can be used for control and
evaluating progress. Owners are usually very demanding in meeting the project schedule. In today’s business environment, timetomarket is a major “hot button” that influences market share, costs, and profits. The schedule should spell out what, who, and when. 6. Costs and payment schedule. The RFP needs to set out very clearly how, when, and the process for
determining costs and conditions for progress payments. 7. Type of contract. Essentially there are two types of contracts—fixedprice and costplus. Fixedprice
contracts agree on a price or lump sum in advance, and it remains as long as there are no changes to the scope provisions of the agreement. This type is preferred in projects that are well defined with predictable costs and minimal risks. The contractor must exercise care estimating cost because any underestimating of costs will cause the contractor’s profit to be reduced. In costplus contracts the contractor is reimbursed for all or some of the expenses incurred during performance of the contract. This fee is negotiated in advance and usually involves a percent of total costs. “Time and materials” plus a profit factor are typical of costplus contracts. Both types of contracts can include incentive clauses for superior performance in time and cost, or in some cases, penalties—for example, missing the opening date of a new sports stadium. 8. Experience and staffing. The ability of the contractor to implement the project may depend on specific
skills; this necessary experience should be specified, along with assurance such staff will be available for this project. 9. Evaluation criteria. The criteria for evaluating and awarding the project contract should be specified. For
example, selection criteria frequently include methodology, price, schedule, and experience; in some cases these criteria are weighted. Use of the outline in Figure A2.1 will help to ensure key items in the proposal are not omitted. A wellprepared RFP will provide contractors with sufficient guidelines to prepare a proposal that clearly meets the project and customer’s needs.
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SELECTION OF CONTRACTOR FROM BID PROPOSALS Interested contractors respond to project RFPs with a written bid proposal. It is likely that several contractors will submit bid proposals to the customer. The final step in the RFP process is to select the contractor who best meets the requirements requested in the
RFP. The selection criteria given in the RFP are used to evaluate which contractor is awarded the contract to implement the project. Losing contractors should be given an explanation of the key factors that led to the selection of the winning contractor/vendor; appreciation for their participation and effort should be acknowledged. See Figure A2.2, Contractor Evaluation Template, adapted from one used in practice.
FIGURE A2.2 Contractor Evaluation Template
1 Shenhar, A., and Dov Dvie, Reinventing Project Management, Harvard Business School, 2007, p. 5. 2 Doran, G. T., “There’s a Smart Way to Write Management Goals and Objectives,” Management Review, November 1981, pp. 35–36. 3 MacIntyre, J., PM Network, vol. 20 (11) November 2006, pp. 32–35. 4 Fusco, J. C., “Better Policies Provide the Key to Implementing Project Management,” Project Management Journal, vol. 28 (3) 1997, pp. 38–41. 5 PMI, “PMI’s Pulse of the Profession,” March 2012, Project Management Institute, p. 7. 6 Smith, D. K., and R. C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored the First Personal Computer (New York: Macmillan, 1988). 7 Matheson, D., and J. Matheson, The Smart Organization (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998), pp. 203–209.
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