Consumer Behavior

Consumer Attitude Formation and Change

Learning Objectives 6.1 To understand how consumers’ attitudes influence t heir decision-making.

6.2 To understand the tri-component attitude model.

6.3 To understand how to apply mu ltiattribute models to change consumers’ attitud es.

6.4 To understand how to alter consumers’ attit udes by making particu lar needs prominent .

6.5 To understand cognit ive elaboration and the two routes t o persuasion.

6.6 To understand cognit ive dissonance and resolving cognit ive conflicts.

6.7 To understand how peop le assign causa lity to events.

N ATTITUDE is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavor- able way toward a g iven object. In t he con- text of consumer behavio r, an “object” can

be a product, brand, service, price, package, adver- tisement, p romotional medium, or the retai ler sell ing the product, among other dimensions of consumer behavior.

Consumers learn attitudes from direct experi- ence w it h the product , word-of-mouth, exposure to mass media, and other information sources. Attitudes reflect either favorable or unfavorable evaluations of t he attit ude object and mot ivat e consumers either to b uy o r not buy part icular products o r brands. Con- sumers buy product s t oward which they have positive and f avorable feeli ngs, and market ers m ust ensure that consumers ma intain these attitudes fo llowing

the p urchase so t hat t hey keep buying their products repeated ly.

Marketers who introduce new it ems strive to form favorab le consumer attit udes toward the new p roducts in order to get consumers to try them, like them, and continue to b uy them. Doing so is difficu lt because people are oft en unrecept ive to the unfamiliar, at least initially. One way to establish positive attit udes towa rd new products is to capitalize on wel l-establ ished brand names. For example, Wrangler Traveler Jeans-a new product featu red in Figure 6. 1-is targeted p rimarily to millennia Is. Sales of jeans to mil lennials have slowed as they dress in more comfortable clothing such as leg- g ings and sweat pants. This ad tells consumers t hat the traveler jeans are comfo rtable, like sweat pants, and ca rry t he well-known brand name of Wrangler, so that consumers can expect a certain level of qual it y.

 

 

FIGURE 6.1 Changing Attitudes

attitude A learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way toward a given object.

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 143

INTRODUCING

TRAVELER …..::::::::•–JEANS

‘- U. t•lU. -la.- lt…, u —·IIWI. o . ……… – II .,. • lilA I -11:”‘-• -)4oi.IO C ,.. t …. T ,. ,_ .. …..,. _ .. l.._•ooc.t

f ‘-l_II.,.S.WU1….,11aJunJIJ …… …,…,…,…_ ,fll “‘ … r • …..,_ , P>to<ltt,tca -PIOU. t.e “‘”‘_”.,.,. L I .,..n,., … …,IC – I’ It I .. .ol. – …. ft, t- ,..,. 1111. II t -· — ….. “” I – Oll&m. ” WSit ….. – I .11. 6 2 $, 0.. I’IIU –

t llo< u … t.IOCJIU…_IIoo; ……. _,…,_ tfaKDtl11. 111Grllll. l • -IQ,__…._ __ tCJICIIIJCft—-· “tll- till …. lCl cl _ __ .n–111 — •’lttUaUID

..

::s .55

Attitude Formation Learning Objective 6.1 To understand how

consumers’ attitudes influence their decision-making.

All consumers have many attitudes toward products, services, advertisements, the internet, and retail stores, among many others. Whenever we are asked whether we like or dislike a product (e.g., Oreo cookies), a service (e.g., Marriott Hotels), a particular retailer (e.g., Target), a specific direct-online marketer (e.g., Amazon.com), or an advertising theme (e.g., Snickers Satisfies), we are being asked to express our attitudes. By studying consumers’ attitudes, mar- keters can determine whether consumers will adopt their new products. Marketers develop promotional strategies and refine their segmentation and targeting tools based on what they know about consumer attitudes towards their products and services. To illustrate, Nike and Reebok frequently study consumers’ attitudes toward the functional and aesthetic designs of athletic footwear. They regularly gauge reactions to their latest advertising and other market- ing messages designed to form and change consumer attitudes. Attitudes are cognitions and not easily observable, but researchers can assess them by asking questions or making infer- ences from behavior. For example, if researchers survey students and discover that they had purchased Lady Gaga songs from iTunes and listen to them often, researchers can infer that the students like Lady Gaga and have positive attitude toward her and also toward iTunes.

Attitudes are directed at objects, such as products, product categories, brands, services, promotional messages, websites, media, retailers, and other entities. Although attitudes gen- erally lead to behavior, they are not synonymous with behavior. Sometimes, attitudes reflect either a favorable or an unfavorable evaluation of the attitude object, which might or might not lead to behavior. Attitudes might propel consumers toward a particular behavior or repel them away from such.

LEARMNG ATIITUDES As a result of promotional messages, consumers form new attitudes as well as change existing ones. Often, they form positive attitudes toward new items under the same brand that they have been buying repeatedly and with which they have been satisfied. Nevertheless, consum- ers often try new products, product models, and different brands. If such trial purchases meet or exceed their expectations, they would develop favorable attitudes toward those objects. Generally, the more information consumers have about a product or service, the more likely they are to form attitudes about it, either positive or negative. However, if the product is irrel- evant to them, the consumers will not cognitively process any of the available and applicable information. Furthermore, consumers often use only a limited amount of the information

 

 

144 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

available to them. Typically, only two or three prominent beliefs about a product play a role in the formation of attitudes. Therefore, advertisements should be focused on the key points that differentiate products from those of competitors.

How do consumers form their initial attitudes toward products, brands, services, and so on? For example, how do young adults form attitudes toward Hanes or Calvin Klein under- wear, or J. Crew or Gap casual wear, or Anne Klein or Brooks Brothers business clothing? Would they buy their underwear, casual wear, and business clothing at Wal-Mart, Sears, Saks Fifth Avenue, or Nordstrom? How do family members and friends, admired celebri- ties, mass-media advertisements, and even cultural memberships influence young adults’ attitudes about buying apparel? Why do some attitudes persist for a long time while others change often?

Next, we discuss the sources and factors that play a role in determining consumers’ attitudes toward marketing objects.

PERSONAL SOURCES AND EXPERIENCES Personal experiences, family and friends, media, and social media strongly affect attitudes. A primary source of attitudes toward products is the consumers’ direct experiences in try- ing and evaluating them. Recognizing the importance of direct experience, marketers offer consumers incentives to try new products-coupons, free samples, and other inducements. If consumers try and like the new products, they will form positive attitudes and buy them repeatedly. In addition to personal experience, the family strongly impacts people’s initial shopping-related attitudes (see Chapter 10). For instance, young children who were rewarded for good behavior with sweet foods and candy often retain a taste for (and positive attitude toward) sweets as adults. Research has also shown that attitudes stemming from direct expe- rience (e.g., product usage) are more enduring and resistant to competitors’ messages than attitudes originating from promotional messages only (i.e., those developed without trying the product).

Marketers increasingly use online advertising to shape attitudes because this channel enables them to customize advertising messages and some products. Online, marketers can target consumers on the basis of their demographic, psychographic, or geodemographic pro- files with personalized product offerings (e.g., watches or sets of golf clubs for left-handed people), and messages that reflect individuals’ specific desires. Targeted online marketing can shape attitudes more effectively than other media because the promotional messages address consumers’ needs precisely, whereas messages carried by traditional media generally reach diverse and large segments, as well as many consumers who have neither the need for nor interest in the product.

PERSONALITY FACTORS Personality traits significantly influence the formation of attitudes. For example, individu- als with a high need for cognition (i.e., those who crave information and enjoy thinking) are likely to form positive attitudes in response to promotions that include a lot of detailed, product-related information. In contrast, consumers who are relatively low in this need are more likely to form positive attitudes in response to ads that feature attractive models, celebri- ties, or other peripheral cues about the product. A person’s level on innovativeness and related personality traits deeply impact attitudes towards new products (see Chapter 3).

CONSISTENCY WITH BEHAVIOR Similar attitudes consistently lead to the same behaviors. However, despite their consistency, attitudes can change either seldomly or frequently. Normally, we expect consumers’ behavior to correspond with their attitudes. For example, if a study showed that Mexican consumers prefer Japanese cars over Korean automobiles, we would expect that they would purchase Japanese cars. However, circumstances often disrupt the consistency between attitudes and behavior. For example, Mexican consumers might be unable to afford the cars they prefer and buy Korean cars instead. In this case, affordability is a “situational” factor.

 

 

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 145

TABLE 6.1 Situations Affecting Attitudes

Product/Service Situation Attitude

Energizer Batteries Hurricane is coming “I know that the hurricane is going to knock out my electricity, so I’d better be prepared.”

Mini Cooper Buying a new car “With gas prices so high, I’ve got to trade in my SUV and buy a car that gets 30 mpg!”

Cheerios High cholesterol “They’ve been advertising how Cheerios can lower cholesterol for so long that it must be true.”

The Wall Street Journal Extra cash on hand “I have to decide whether to invest in stocks or just put my money in a money market fund.”

Delta Airlines Friend’s bachelor party “My friend’s bachelor party is in Las Vegas, and I want to be there.”

Maxwell House Coffee Need to stay awake “I had a late date last night, but I’ve got a lot of work to do this morning at the office.”

Stouffer’s Easy Express Meals Want dinner at home “I’m tired of eating out night after night.”

SITUATIONAL FACTORS Attitudes occur within and are affected by situations. In this context, “situations” are events and circumstances that influence the relationships between attitudes and behaviors at particular times. Situations can cause consumers to behave in ways seemingly inconsistent with their attitudes. For instance, if Margaret purchases a different brand of sun protection lotion each time she runs low, her brand switching may reflect a negative attitude toward the brands she has tried. In reality, she may have purchased different brands because she wanted to save money and bought only the ones on sale. The opposite may also be true. If Edward stays at a Hampton Inn each time he goes out of town for business, we may erroneously infer that he has a par- ticularly favorable attitude toward Hampton Inn. In fact, Edward may find Hampton Inn to be merely “acceptable” and prefer to stay at the Hilton or Marriott. However, because he owns his own business and travels at his own expense, he may feel that Hampton Inn is “good enough.”

Consumers may have different attitudes toward a particular object, each corresponding to particular circumstances. For instance, when Scott replaces his old sedan, he considers buying a new SUV, so that he can drive his children and their friends to after-school and weekend activities comfortably. However, when he realizes how expensive driving the SUV to work-30 miles each day-would be, he reconsiders his intention. Then, he speaks with a co-worker who owns a Ford Escape Hybrid SUV and finds out that his colleague is very satis- fied with the car’s gas mileage. The gas mileage is better than Scott’s old car and he finds that his co-worker’s car is affordable. He then purchases a Ford Escape so that he can save money on gas and drive his children and their friends to their after-school and weekend activities.

When studying attitudes, researchers can easily misinterpret the relationship between attitudes and behavior, unless they consider the situations surrounding the attitudes, such as the ones listed in Table 6.1.

The Tri-Component Attitude Model Learning Objective 6.2 To understand the

tri-component attitude model.

tri-component attitude model A model describing the structure of attitudes, it maintains that an attitude consists of three components.

Researchers constructed several models that explain how attitudes affect behavior. First, we examine the tri-component model, and then describe multiattribute frameworks . The tri-component attitude model maintains that attitudes consist of three components: cognitive, affective, and conative, as shown in Figure 6.2.

 

 

146 PART i i • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

FIGURE 6.2 The Tri -Component Attitude Model

cognitive component The first component of the Tri- Component model of attitudes. it represents the person’s knowl- edge and perceptions of the features of the attitude object, which, col lectively, are the beliefs that the object possesses or does not possess specific attributes.

affective component The second component of the Tri-Component model of atti- tudes. it represents the person’s emotions and feelings regarding the attitude object, which are considered evaluations because they capture the person’s over- all assessment of the attitude object (i.e., the extent to which the individual rates the attitude object as ” favorable” or “unfa- vorable,” “good” or ” bad” ).

‘

Cognitive

• Knowledge and perception of product or brand features

• Expressed as beliefs about a brand

Conative

• Actions or behavior toward a product or brand

• Expressed as intention to purchase a brand

THE COGNITIVE COMPONENT

Affective

• Emotions and feelings about a product or brand

• Expressed as favorable or unfavorable attitude toward a brand

The cognitive component consists of a person’s cognitions- that is, the knowledge and perceptions of the features of an attitude object that the person acquired from direct experi- ence with the attitude object and information from various sources. This knowledge and perceptions commonly are expressed as beliefs. In other words, the consumer believes that the attitude object possesses or does not possess specific attributes. Table 6.2 illustrates the beliefs of a hypothetical consumer about two smart speakers (Google Home and Amazon Echo) that respond to voice commands, play music, and control a smart home. 1

THE AFFECTIVE COMPONENT The affective component represents the consumer’s emotions andfeelings regarding the attitude object. These are considered evaluations because they capture the consumer’s global assessment of the attitude object (i.e., the extent to which the individual rates the attitude object as “favorable” or “unfavorable,” “good” or “bad”).

TABLE 6.2 Beliefs about Two Smart Speakers ‘

Product Attribut e

Responds to Voice Commands

Prompt Word

Works with my Smart Home (Ecobee)

Customizable Appearance

Personal Assistant

Works with my Music Streaming Preference (YouTube Music)

Google Home

Yes

“OK Google” or “Hey Google”

No

Yes

Search Google, daily briefing, check traffic, calendar, flights, make shopping list, track packages

Yes

Amazon Echo

Yes

“Alexa ” “Echo ” “Amazon ” or “Computer” ‘ ‘ ‘ Yes

No

Add items to calendar, make shopping and to-do lists, check flights , track a package

No

Source: Adapted from: Andrew Gebhart, “Google Home vs. Amazon Echo: Round 2- Google strikes back,” CNET.com, 28, 2017.

 

 

FIGURE 6.3 Feelings and Emotions about Dapper Dan Aftershave Balm Measured by a Likert Scale

Likert scale The most popular form of atti- tude scale, where consumers are asked to check numbers corresponding to their level of “agreement” or “disagreement” with a series of statements about the studied object. The sca le consists of an equal num- ber of agreement/disagreement choices on either side of a neu- tral choice.

semantic differential scale A measure consisting of a series of bipolar adjectives (such as “good/bad,” “hot/cold,” “like/dislike,” or “expensive/ inexpensive”) anchored at the ends of an odd-numbered (e.g., five- or seven-point) continuum.

conative component The third component of the Tri- Component model of attitudes. it represents he likelihood that an individual will behave in a particu- lar way with regard to the attitude object. in consumer behavior, the conative component is t reated as an expression of the consumer’s intention to buy.

FIGURE 6.4 Semantic Differential Scales Measuring Consumers’ Attitudes toward Lipgloss

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 147

For the past 30 days, you have been using Dapper Dan Aftershave Balm. Please tell us how your skin felt after using the product. Please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with each of the statements listed here.

Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Disagree

Dapper Dan Balm refreshed my skin. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Dapper Dan Balm tightened my skin. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Dapper Dan Balm smoothed my skin. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Dapper Dan Balm suppled my skin. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Dapper Dan Balm revived my skin. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Affect-laden experiences also manifest themselves as “emotionally charged states” (e.g., happiness, sadness, shame, disgust, anger, distress, guilt, or surprise). These and other emo- tional states may enhance or amplify the experience itself, as well as subsequent recollections. For instance, if a person visiting a shopping center feels particularly joyous during shopping there, he will spend more time doing so and recall with great pleasure the time spent at the shopping center. In addition, he may encourage his friends to visit the center. Figure 6.3 illustrates the measurement of consumers’ feelings and emotions toward a product by using a Likert scale, which measures respondents’ levels of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements about the object.

Another measure of a person’s emotions toward an object, shown in Figure 6.4, is a semantic differential scale, which is a type of rating scale consisting of a series of bipolar adjectives (e.g., good/bad, pleasant/unpleasant) anchored on a continuum. Many researchers believe that a person’s attitude can be derived directly from this measure because, presumably, the scales reflect beliefs and cognitions, as well as emotions toward the attitude object.

THE CONATIVE COMPONENT The conative component reflects the likelihood that an individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a particular way with regard to the attitude object. In consumer research, the conative component is treated as an expression of the consumer’s intention to buy. Buying intention scales are used to assess the likelihood of a consumer purchasing a product or behav- ing in a certain way. Figure 6.5 shows examples of intention-to-buy measures. Interestingly, consumers who are asked to respond to an intention-to-buy question appear to be more likely to actually make a brand purchase for positively evaluated brands (e.g., “I will buy it”), as contrasted with consumers who are not asked to respond to an intention question. This sug- gests that a positive brand commitment in the form of a positive answer to an attitude inten- tion question positively affects the actual brand purchase.

For the past 30 days, you have been using HI Lipgloss. Please tell us how your lips felt after using the product. For each of the adjectives listed here, please mark an “X” in the box corresponding to how your lips felt after using HI Lipgloss.

Refreshed [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Not refreshed

Tight [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Not tight

Smooth [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Not smooth

Supple [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Not supple

Revived [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Not revived

 

 

148 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

FIGURE 6.5 Intention to Buy Which of the following statements best describes the chance that you would buy Dapper Dan

Aftershave Balm the next time you purchase an aftershave product? __ I definitely will buy it. __ I probably will buy it.

__ I am uncertain whether I will buy it or not. __ I probably will not buy it. __ I definitely will not buy it.

How likely are you to buy Dapper Dan Aftershave Balm during the next three months? __ Very likely __ Likely

Uncertain — __ Unlikely

__ Very unlikely

CHANGING CONSUMERS’ ATIITUDES Changing attitudes about products and brands is difficult because consumers frequently resist evidence that challenges strongly held attitudes or beliefs and tend to interpret any ambiguous information in ways that reinforce their preexisting attitudes.2 There are two primary strate- gies for changing consumers’ attitudes: changing an offering’s overall image and referring to specific product attributes. Next, we discuss the first strategy. In the following section, which explains multiattribute models of attitudes, we address the second approach.

Changing Beliefs about Products The strategy of changing beliefs in order to change attitudes concentrates on changing beliefs or perceptions about the brand itself. This is by far the most common form of advertising appeal. Advertisers constantly are reminding us that their products have “more” or are “bet- ter” or “best” in terms of some important product attribute. For example, an ad for Kraft’s Miracle Whip claims that using this product makes a tastier turkey sandwich than mayonnaise does. To support this claim, the ad points out that Miracle Whip has “more flavor and half the fat” of mayonnaise.

Information aimed at changing an attitude must be compelling and repeated many times if it is to overcome people’s natural resistance to abandoning established attitudes. For example, people believe that avocados contain too much fat. The ad shown in Figure 6.6 focuses on changing these beliefs about Avocado-in general not perceived as a stand-alone food-by stating that the product can satisfy cravings in a healthy way.

Changing Brand Image The strategy of changing brand image consists of attempting to alter consumers’ overall assessment of the brand. Marketers employ this approach by using inclusive promotional statements designed to set their brands apart from those of the competition. Examples of such statements include, “This is the largest-selling brand” or “This is the one others try to imi- tate.” An AT&T campaign was designed to enhance the brand’s image without any references to products or services offered under the brand name. AT&T’ s slogan, “Rethink possible,” was developed to change the attitudes of many who felt overwhelmed by technology and to increase consumers’ confidence in technology, with taglines such as “It’s what you do with what we do.”3 As another example, many ads have used the well-recognized phrase ”A New Beginning” to bolster a brand’s overall image and revive consumer interest. The ad for Kraft Macaroni and Cheese in Figure 6. 7 is designed to maintain brand image. The ad advises consumers that the brand remains the same although it looks somewhat different.

 

 

FIGURE 6.6 Changing Beliefs about Avocados

FIGURE 6.7 Changing the Brand Image of Kraft Macaroni and Cheese

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 149

Mexico ………….. . …. ……… ‘-..) ………………………… . the amazing avocado”

Relax, it’s the good iats. Your body needs the monounsaturated fats found in Avocados from Mexico.

So add substance to your salad or natural, satisfying creaminess to any sandwich,

and rest easy knowing it’s only 50 calories per 3-slice, 1-ounce serving.

Recipes, health bene fits and more @theamazingavocado.com

© 2012 Mexican Hass Avocado In porte s Assocrat on

 

 

150 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

comparative advertising An advertising appeal where marketers proclaim that their products are better than com- peting brands named in the ads.

Changing Beliefs about Competing Brands Another attitude-change strategy involves changing consumer beliefs about competitors’ brands or product categories. For instance, an advertisement for Eclipse chewing gum makes a dramatic assertion of the brand’s superiority over other gums by stating, “Most other gums just mask bad breath. We kill the germs that cause it.” Companies that sell organic food often compare their products to regular food and try to establish an unfavorable attitude toward produce that is grown with pesticides. Similarly, the ad for Lysol Sanitizing Wipes in Figure 6.12 (later in the chapter) establishes negative attitudes toward an entire category of competing products. The ad states that Lysol’s competitors-paper towels-spread germs, whereas Lysol Wipes kill them. Ads that compare organic food to nonorganic food are an example of comparative advertising and the Lysol ad depicts a two-sided message (see Chapter 7).

Attitude-Behavior Gap It is commonly accepted that there is a consistency between the components of an attitude and actual behavior. However, there are instances in which there is a disconnect between these components and actual behavior. For example, when asked, consumers tend to have a favorable attitude toward hybrid cars, but the marketers selling hybrid cars are not seeing great increases in sales. Although a consumer may think, “Hybrid cars are great and they are helping to solve the pollution problem,” they aren’t buying these cars in great numbers.4

Multiattribute Models

Learning Objective 6.3 To understand how to

apply multiattribute models to change consumers’ attitudes.

multiattribute attitude models models that portray consumers’ attitudes as functions of their assessments of the objects’ prominent attributes.

attitude-toward-object model A model stating that a consum- er’s attitude toward a product or brand is a function of the presence of certain attributes and the consumer’s evaluation of those attributes.

FIGURE 6.8 Similarities and Differences of the Multiattribute Models

Attitude Toward the Object

Multiattribute attitude models portray consumers’ attitudes as functions of their assess- ments of the objects’ prominent attributes. First, we discuss the attitude-toward-object model and the use of product attributes in changing consumers’ attitudes and developing new products. Next, we examine the attitude-toward-behavior model, the theory of reasoned action, the theory of trying to consume, the attitude-toward-ad model, and the attitude-toward-social-media posts. Figure 6.8 highlights the similarities and differences between each of the multiattribute models.

ATTITUDE-TOWARD-OBJECT MODEL The attitude-toward-object model maintains that a consumer’s evaluation of a product is a function of:

1. The extent to which the product has (or lacks) each of a given set of attributes. 2. The importance of each of these attributes to the consumer.

In other words, consumers generally have favorable attitudes toward those brands that they believe have better performance on the attributes that they view as important, and unfavorable attitudes toward those brands that they feel do not meet these criteria. 5

Attitude Toward Behavior Theory of Reasoned Action

• Does a brand have the needed attribute? • Attitude toward the brand • Tri -component attitude model • What is the importance of that

attribute?

Theory of Trying to Consume

• Attitude toward the behavior • Personal impediments • Environmental impediments

• How do I feel about buying this brand?

Attitude Toward the Ad

• Attitudes toward brands are formed based on how consumers feel about the advertisements for these brands.

• Normative beliefs • Motivation to comply with norms

Attitude-Toward-Social-Media Posts

• Attitudes toward brands are formed based on how consumers feel about what they see on social media about the brands.

 

 

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 151

The following example illustrates how this model was used to measure attitudes toward two smartphones: iPhone and Galaxy. Figure 6.9A displays the scale administered to mea- sure the importance of 10 attributes to two groups of students: economics majors and marketing majors, and the results are listed in Figure 6.9B.

1. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to be light and thin?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

2. How unimportant or important is for a smartphone to have a carrier that does not require a long-term service contract?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

3. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to have a high-definition screen?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

4. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to have a carrier that provides unlimited data transmission?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

5. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to look “totally cool”?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

6. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to have a carrier that provides unlimited iCloud storage?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

7. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to have a high-definition camera?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

8. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to have a carrier that notifies you when you are about to exceed your text messages’ allowance?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

9. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to have a thin “juice pack” that is also the phone’s protection cover?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

10. How unimportant or important is it for a smartphone to offer a low-price option to repair a shattered screen?

Not important at all -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 Very important

F I G U R E 6 . 9 A Importance of Product Attributes

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Attribute

Light and thin

Carrier does not require long-term service contract

High-definition screen

Carrier provides unlimited data transmission

Looks “totally cool”

Carrier provides unlimited iCloud storage

High-definition camera

Carrier notifies when text messages’ allowance is to be exceeded

The “juice pack” is also the protection cover

Carrier offers a low-price option to repair a shattered screen

F I G U R E 6 . 9 B Attributes’ Importance Rankings

Economics Majors

+1

+3

0

+2

+1

+3

0

+3

-3

+3

Marketing Majors

+3

0

+2

0

+3

-2 +2

+1

+3

+2

 

 

152 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

FIGURE 6.10 Beliefs Whether or Not the Brands Have the Attributes

In Figure 6.9B, the items in blue represent hedonic attributes (the odd numbers), whereas the ones in green (the even numbers) represent budgetary attributes. Overall, marketing majors marked the hedonic attributes as the most important, whereas economics majors believed that the budgetary attributes were more important than the hedonic.

Apparently, we had identified two distinct segments, each looking for different benefits in smartphones. Let’s call the economics majors the PRUDENT and the marketing majors the EXTRAVAGANT.

Next, all the students were asked to indicate their beliefs about each of the two brands by indicating the likelihood that the brand has the attributes (listed in Figure 6.9B) by filling out the scale in Figure 6.1 0.

Then, the attributes’ importance scores were multiplied by the likelihoods’ scores and overall scores for each phone were computed. Tables 6.3A and 6.3B display the scores for the economics and marketing majors.

As indicated earlier, economics majors-the PRUDENT segment- rated the budget- ary attributes as the most important. Subsequently, in Table 6.3A, they gave the Galaxy a much higher score than the iPhone because the product scored high on the attributes they had considered were the most desirable budgetary attributes. On the other hand, Table 6.3B

Please note that the respondents will be asked to fill the same scale twice-one for the iPhone and the other for Galaxy.

1. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone is very light and thin?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

2. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone’s carrier does not require a long-term service contract?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

3. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone has a high-definition screen?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

4. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone’s carrier provides unlimited data transmis sian?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

5. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone looks “totally cool”?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

6. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone’s carrier provides unlimited iCloud storage?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

7. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone has a high-definition camera?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

8. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone’s carrier notifies you when you are about to exceed your text messages’ allowance?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

9. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone has a thin “juice pack” as the phone’s back cover?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

10. How unlikely or likely is it that the iPhone offers a low-price option to repair a shattered screen?

Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely likely

 

 

154 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

attitude-toward-behavior model A model stating that a consum- er’s attitude towa rd a specific behavior is a function of how strongly he or she believes t hat the action wi ll lead to a specific outcome (either favorab le or unfavorable).

Adding an Attribute Adding a product or brand attribute means either adding an attribute that previously was ignored or adding one that represents an improvement or innovation. Nevertheless, adding an attribute requires additional promotions in order to convey the innovation to the consumers.

Another form of adding an attribute is innovation. To illustrate, a bottle of Wish-Bone® Salad Spritzer™ includes a pump that enables consumers to spray a mist of dressing on a salad, thus allowing them to control how much dressing they put on salads more precisely. Sometimes, eliminating a product feature may change attitudes favorably. For example, after conducting consumer studies, many marketers of personal care products now offer unscented or alcohol-free items.

Changing the Perceived Importance of Attributes In the discussion of benefit segmentation (see Chapter 2), we illustrated how different brands provide consumers with different benefits and how they are positioned accordingly. For exam- ple, in headache remedies, there is the division between aspirin (e.g., Bayer), acetaminophen (e.g., Tylenol), and naproxen sodium (e.g., Aleve ). Marketers of personal care items sell multiple versions of the same product that provide somewhat different, narrowly defined benefits, in order to maintain or gain market share. For instance, Colgate Total provides 12 hours of germ fighting, Colgate Max Fresh wipes out bad breath, and Colgate Sensitive Pro-Relief is for people who have sensitive gums.

Some companies discover product attributes that most consumers pay little or no attention to and feature them in ads. Apparently, Dole discovered that some buyers of prepackaged fruit are unaware that other brands do not immerse the fruit in 1 OOo/o fruit juice. Therefore, Dole differ- entiates its product by making consumers aware that Dole fruit is packaged in 100% fruit juice.

Developing New Products Marketers often use the attitude-toward-object model during the development of new prod- ucts . Consider the following hypothetical example: the TruOJ Company is planning to add a new item to its product line. The company’s market researchers identified four attributes as the key determinants in consumers’ attitudes toward orange juice: amount of pulp, degree of sweetness, strength of flavor, and color. TruOJ then conducted a three-stage study:

1. Researchers asked consumers who drank orange juice regularly to describe their ideal juice, along the four attributes.

2. Realistically, TruOJ could not produce the ideal juice because it could not offer it at a competitive price. Therefore, they asked respondents to rate a concept juice represent- ing a product that TruOJ could sell. The concept juice was similar to the ideal one but not identical.

3. TruOJ made an actual new orange juice, which consumers tasted and rated.

In this scenario, compared with the ideal, the actual product had too little pulp and was far too sweet, but the flavor of both products was nearly the same. Regarding color, it appears that although TruOJ did not match the ideal or the product concept, the company improved the color in the actual product by making it closer to the ideal. These findings indicate that TruOJ must change the actual product so that it matches consumers’ preferences, by making it less sweet and adding pulp.

ATTITUDE-TOWARD-BEHAVIOR MODEL The attitude-toward-behavior model captures the individual’s attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to an object, rather than merely the person’s attitude toward the object itself. Using the attitude-toward-behavior model to understand consumers may sometimes be more useful than using the attitude-toward-object model. For instance, a consumer looking for a new car might like Lexus cars (i.e., positive attitude toward the object), but not be ready or willing to buy an expensive Lexus (i.e., a negative attitude toward the behavior associated with the object).

 

 

attitude-toward-the-ad model A model maintaining that a consumer forms various fee lings (affects) and judgments (cogni- t ions) as the result of exposure to an advertisement, which, in turn, affects the consumer’s atti- tude toward the ad and beliefs and attitudes toward the brand advertised.

FIGURE 6.11 Potential Impediments to Trying to Consume

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 155

THEORY OF REASONED ACTION Like the tri -component model, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) incorporates the cognitive, affective, and conative components. Additionally, it holds that researchers must measure the subjective norms that influence a person’s intention to act before gauging the level of intention. Subjective norms are the person’s feelings as to what relevant others (e.g., family, friends, roommates, co-workers) think of the action the person contemplates. For example, if a student wanted to get a tattoo but first considered whether her parents or boy- friend would approve or disapprove, her consideration is her subjective norm.

Two factors underlie subjective norms:

1. Normative beliefs that the individual attributes to relevant others 2. Motivation to comply with the preferences of the relevant others6

For instance, the subjective norms of a student contemplating getting a tattoo (i.e., the “pur- chase”) consist of answers to the following questions:

1. Who are her relevant others (e.g., parents and boyfriend)? 2. What are her beliefs about how each relevant other would respond to her tattoo (e.g.,

“Mom would consider the tattoo an object often associated with gangs, but my boy- friend would love it”)?

3. To what extent complying with the preferences of the relevant others plays a role in her decision? In other words, is she sufficiently motivated to defer to the relevant others or not?

THEORY OF TRYING TO CONSUME The theory of trying to consume represents cases where the outcome of a contemplated action (e.g., a purchase), stemming from a positive attitude, is uncertain but is still being pursued by the consumer. A person trying to consume faces two types of obstacles that may prevent the desired outcome (see examples in Figure 6. 11):

1. Personal impediments, such as a consumer who is trying to find “just the right tie” to go with a suit, for less than $50, or a person trying to lose weight but loves cookies.

2. Environmental impediments, such as the reality that “just the right tie” costs more than $50, or realizing that one cannot continue eating cookies and lose weight, and that there are no low-calorie cookies that taste good.7

ATTITUDE-TOWARD-THE-AD MODEL The attitude-toward-the-ad model proposes that the feelings consumers form when they see and hear ads significantly impact their attitudes toward the brands advertised.

Researchers among Asian Indian U.S. immigrants explored attitudes toward 12 advertise- ments and purchased 6 different products that the ads featured. The study found a positive relationship between attitude toward the advertisement and purchase intention for each of the advertised products; that is, if consumers liked the ad, they were more likely to purchase the product. 8 Other consumer research that examined general attitudes toward advertising in Bulgaria and Romania (members of the European Union) found that consumers in those

Personal Impediments Within My Control

• I tried to go to the concert, but I missed the bus.

• I tried to use a new software package, but it was too complicated for me.

• I tried to refill the ink cartridge and the ink spilled all over my table.

Environmental Impediments Outside of My Control

• I tried to get a game day cap, but only the first 500 fans at the baseball game received a free cap.

• I tried to buy the newest smartphone, but the product I want is out of stock.

• I tried to get a reservation at the best restaurant in town, but it was all booked for the night I wanted to go.

 

 

156 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

nations were more positive about the institution of advertising (i.e., as a marketing tool) than they were about the actual advertisements used to promote products and services. Further- more, while the main personal use of advertising in Bulgaria was information acquisition, the entertainment value of advertising was the strongest personal use in Romania.9

ATTITUDE-TOWARD-SOCIAL-MEDIA-POSTS MODEL Today’s consumers spend a great deal of time using social media, which allows consumers to interact with each other about brands as well as interact with companies about their brands. Similar to the attitude-toward-the-ad model, consumers form attitudes-toward-social- media posts and interactions. Furthermore, the attitude that is formed about the post influ- ences the attitude toward the brand. 10

Attitudes’ Motivational Functions

Learning Objective 6.4 To understand how to

alter consumers’ attitudes by making particu lar needs prominent.

functional approach An approach to changing attitudes by appealing to the reasons (or motivations) behind people’s attitudes. These rea- sons are cal led “functions.”

Sometimes marketers must try to change negative consumer attitudes about their products, companies, marketing practices, or industry. Frequently, the negative attitudes are not the result of bad products or promotion, but rather stem from uncontrollable circumstances. For example, several years ago, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration advised pregnant or nursing women and also young children to eat less canned tuna, due to concerns about the bioconcentration of mercury, a neurotoxin, in the fish. Subsequently, consumption of the three main brands of canned tuna-Bumble Bee, Chicken of the Sea, and Star Kist-declined substantially. The three competing brands commissioned an advertising campaign to reverse consumers’ negative feelings toward canned tuna. The theme of the campaign was “Tuna the Wonderfish,” and through TV and online commercials, print ads, digital screens, posters, and materials placed in gyms and health clubs, it humorously portrayed that eating tuna is fun. Online, tunathewonderfish.com featured recipes and wacky characters called “the tuna lov- ers,” and sang the praises of tuna with slogans such as, “tuna is good for your heart,” “part of a healthy diet,” and “great on the go.” These messages were designed to restore consum- ers’ confidence in tuna by telling them that eating tuna is not only healthy but also fun. The product’s marketers knew that consumers liked canned tuna but were hesitant to eat it because of information that, although directed at a relatively small segment (i.e., pregnant women), negatively affected the perceptions of many consumers. 11

The reasons (or motivations) behind people’s attitudes are known as functions. Changing attitudes by appealing to consumers’ motivations is known as the functional approach.12 Accordingly, attitudes are classified into four functions: The utilitarian function , ego-defensive function , value-expressive function , and knowledge function .

THE UTILITARIAN FUNCTION The utilitarian function reflects the utilities that brands provide. When a product enabled us to perform certain tasks in the past, our attitude toward it tends to be favorable. One strategy for changing attitudes in favor of a product is by demonstrating to consumers that the product possesses a utilitarian purpose(s) that they may not have considered. The ad in Figure 6.12 illustrates how Lysol Wipes are more utilitarian than paper towels.

THE EGO::OEFENSIVE The ego-defensive function maintains that people form attitudes in order to protect themselves from sensing doubt and to replace uncertainty with feelings of security and confidence. Advertising that reassures consumers that they are making the right choice and can feel secure when they purchase their brand are relying on the ego-defensive function to sell their products. For example, an ad for dentures that tells consumers that they can feel secure, smile, and eat because their brand of denture cream will not let their dentures fall out.

 

 

FIGURE 6.12 An Appeal Based on the Utilitarian Function: Paper Towels Spread Germs but Lysol Wipes Kill Them

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 157

Spread harmful germs.

Kill harmful germs.

. . IU

Only Sanitizing Wipes contain the power of to dean and drsrnfect So don’t just wipe up, wipe out 99.9% of germs. c>5

THE VALUE-EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION The value-expressive function maintains that attitudes reflect consumers’ values and beliefs, and that marketers can create ads that either support or refute these notions. For example, many nutrition-conscious consumers probably believe that prepared salads are healthy and low in calories. An ad that refutes that belief by humorously stating that these salads can be fattening because of extra calories from the salad dressing and added ingredients challenges the consumer’s belief.

THE KNOWLEDGE FUNCTION The knowledge function holds that peoples’ attitudes reflect strong needs to understand the characters of the people, events, and objects they encounter. Therefore, many firms use ads centered on the consumer’s need to know. Accordingly, marketers often try to alter con- sumers’ attitudes in favor of their brands by providing them with facts of which they were unaware. For instance, a message for a new allergy medication might include a bar graph demonstrating the product’s superiority by contrasting its allergy-symptom-relief abilities with those of other allergy medications.

ASSOCIATING BRANDS WITH WORTHY OBJECTS OR CAUSES Another way to influence attitudes is to relate them to social, cultural, or worthy causes. Research into brand-cause alliances has investigated the relationship between the cause and the sponsor. One study found that although both the brand and the cause benefited from such alliances, less familiar causes benefited more from association with a positive brand than did highly familiar causes. 13 The results of another study indicated that if corporate sponsors do not explicitly reveal their motives for a company-cause or a product-cause association, consumers will form their own beliefs about the connection between the company or brand

 

 

158 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

and the cause. 14 This indicates that sponsors should tell consumers the reasoning behind their sponsorships, rather than allowing consumers to guess, possibly incorrectly, why the sponsorship was formed.

Furthermore, since so many companies aim to gain awareness and market share by associating with a worthy cause, consumers are often warned to examine how much is being given to the charity. For example, some companies associate with breast cancer by making pink products during the month of October and giving 15o/o of sales to breast cancer research; others give only 5% to research. 15

The Elaboration Likelihood Model

Learning Objective 6.5 To understand cognitive

elaboration and the two routes to persuasion.

elaboration likelihood model (ELM} The proposition that attitudes can be changed by either one of two d ifferent routes to persuasion-a centra l route or a peripheral route-and that the cognitive e laboration related to the processing of informa- tion received via each route is different.

central route to persuasion A promotional approach main- taining that that highly involved consumers are best reached and persuaded through ads focused on the product’s attributes.

peripheral route to persuasion A promotional approach main- taining that uninvolved consum- ers can be best persuaded by the ad’s visual aspects rather than its informative copy (i.e., the product’s attributes).

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) proposes that attitudes can sometimes be changed by either one of two different routes to persuasion-a central route or a peripheral route-and that the cognitive elaboration related to the processing of information received via each route is different. The central and peripheral routes to persuasion reflect extensive problem solving as well as limited problem solving (see Chapter 14) and also correspond with high-involvement purchases and low-involvement purchases (see Chapter 5). The premise of this model is that consumers carefully evaluate the merits and weaknesses of a given product when they consider the purchase to be highly relevant. Conversely, consumers engage in very limited information search and evaluation (or little cognitive elaboration) when the purchase holds little relevance or importance for them. Thus, for high-involvement purchases, the central route to persuasion-which requires considered thought and cognitive processing-is likely to be the most effective marketing strategy. For low-involvement purchases, the peripheral route to persuasion-which requires relatively little thought and information processing-is likely to be effective. In this instance, because the consumer is less motivated to exert cognitive effort, learning occurs through repetition, the passive processing of visual cues, and holistic perception. Highly involved consumers use attribute-based information to evaluate brands, whereas less-involved consumers apply simpler decision rules. In marketing to highly involved consumers, the quality of the argument presented in the persuasive message, rather than the imagery of the promotional message, has the greater impact on the consumption decision.

The route to persuasion has important implications for promotion. For example, comparative ads (see Chapter 7) are more likely to be processed centrally (purposeful processing of message arguments), whereas noncomparative ads are commonly processed peripherally (with little message elaboration and a response derived from other elements in the ad). A study demonstrated that the correlation between a consumer’s product involve- ment and objective product knowledge was higher for utilitarian products than for products designed to bring about pleasure, known as hedonic products. For hedonic products, the cor- relation between subjective knowledge and product involvement was higher than for utilitar- ian products. 16 Assuming that subjective knowledge is the result of interpreting the imagery presented in the ad (i.e., the peripheral route) and that objective knowledge is the outcome of the factual information the ad provides (i.e., the central route), marketers should consider the product’s degree of utilitarianism in selecting either the central or peripheral route in promoting that product. 17

The central route applies to attitude change when a consumer’s motivation or ability to assess the attitude object is high; that is, attitude change occurs because the consumer actively seeks out information relevant to the attitude object itself. When consumers exert the effort to comprehend, learn, or evaluate the available information about the attitude object, learning and attitude change occur via the central route. 18

In contrast, when a consumer’s motivation or assessment skills are low (i.e., low involve- ment), learning and attitude change occur via the peripheral route and without consumer processing of information that is relevant to the attitude object itself. In such cases, atti- tude change often is an outcome of secondary inducements such as cents-off coupons, free

 

 

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 159

samples, beautiful background scenery, great packaging, or the encouragement of a celebrity endorsement. Research indicated that, in some low-involvement situations, both central and secondary inducements initially played equal roles in evoking attitudes. 19 However, the cen- tral inducement had the greater “staying power”; that is, over time it was more persistent than the secondary one. In general, consumers with limited product knowledge prefer ads with factual data-the central route-than ads with secondary cues.

Cognitive Dissonance and Conflict Resolution Learning Objective 6.6 To understand cognitive

dissonance and resolv- ing cognitive conflicts.

cognitive dissonance The mental discomfort that people experience when facing confl icting information about an attitude object.

post-purchase dissonance Cognitive dissonance that occurs after a purchase.

So far, our discussion has maintained the traditional (and rational) view that consumers develop their attitudes before taking action (e.g., “Know what you are doing before you do it”). However, there are theories that refute the “attitude precedes behavior” perspective. Specifically, cognitive dissonance theory and attribution theory provide different explanations as to why and how behavior sometimes precedes attitude formation.

Cognitive dissonance occurs when a consumer holds conflicting thoughts about a belief or an attitude object. For instance, after consumers have made a commitment to buy an important and pricy object-for example, made a down payment on a new house or an expensive car-they often begin to feel cognitive dissonance when they think of the unique, positive qualities of the alternatives not selected (“left behind”). When cognitive dissonance occurs after a purchase, it is called post-purchase dissonance. Because expensive and important purchases require compromise and choice among similar alternatives (e.g., similar homes in the same community), post-purchase dissonance in such instances commonly occurs, and leaves consumers with an uneasy feeling about their behavior (the purchase deci- sion). Thus, marketers must ensure that these consumers resolve conflicting cognitions by changing their attitudes to conform to their behaviors.20

Most often, behavior is the outcome of attitudes . During post-purchase dissonance, however, attitude change is the outcome of behavior already undertaken. The conflicting thoughts and dissonant information that follow a purchase induce most consumers to change their attitudes so that the attitudes become consonant with their purchase behaviors. What makes post-purchase dissonance relevant to marketing strategists is the premise that mar- keters must help consumers reduce the unpleasant feelings created by the thoughts about alternatives that were “given up.” Consumers can reduce their post-purchase dissonance in several ways:

1. Rationalize their decisions. 2. Seek advertisements that support their choices (while avoiding dissonance-creating

competitive ads). 3. Try to “sell” friends on the positive features of the purchase made (i.e., “the consumer

as a sales agent”). 4. Look to satisfied owners for reassurance (e.g., meet homeowners in the community

where the newly purchased house is located).

For example, consider a young man who has just purchased an engagement ring for his girlfriend and then sees the following magazine ad: “How can you make two months’ sal- ary last forever?” Because the purchase was expensive and the groom-to-be is likely to be experiencing dissonance, the ad might relieve his conflicts because it says that although the engagement ring did cost a great deal, the future bride will cherish it for the rest of her life.

Researchers have discovered different types and levels of dissonance. A study of durable consumer goods identified three segments of dissonant consumers: high-dissonance seg- ment, low-dissonance segment, and “concerned about needing the purchase” segment.21

As described earlier, consumers can try to reduce cognitive dissonance on their own. In addition, marketers can help consumers do so through ads specifically aimed at reinforc- ing consumers’ decisions. For example, complimenting consumers on their wise decisions, offering them stronger guarantees or warranties, increasing the number and effectiveness of

 

 

160 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

purchase-related contacts (e.g., post-purchase contacts by real estate agents to new home buyers who are waiting to close on the property), or providing more detailed information about the product while it is on order. In reducing dissonance, personal contacts may be more effective than advertisements; several studies indicated that most buyers believe that advertisers stretch the truth about their products in their promotions?2 A study suggested that overly aggressive salespeople actually induce dissonance because consumers feel that they were “pushed” to make the purchases. Conversely, skilled salespeople can reduce dissonance by providing information and reassurance, and even turn consumers into loyal customers.23

RESOLVING CONFLICTING ATTITUDES Attitude-change strategies are designed to resolve actual or potential cognitive conflicts between two attitudes. For example, George is conservative on social issues, a devoted Episcopalian, and also an active Republican. During one presidential election, the Republican nominee for president was significantly less conservative than George and also a member of another religion. Therefore, George’s attitudes conflicted: he wanted to vote for his party but he disliked the party’s nominee. George faced a dilemma and had three options: (1) not vote at all, although he has never missed voting; (2) vote for the Democratic candidate, which was utterly unacceptable; or (3) develop more positive attitudes about the Republican candidate and vote for him. After attending the Republican convention as a delegate, speaking to other delegates, listening to the speeches, and even briefly meeting the nominee for president, George decided that the candidate’s positions on social issues were, after all, close to his own and also became less concerned regarding the nominee’s religion. Thus, George resolved his conflicting attitudes by altering them in favor of the only voting option that was consistent with his past behavior.

In fact, the party’s officials recognized that many other Republicans felt the same way that George did before the convention, and so they hired marketing consultants whose task was to take measures to change such attitudes. The consultants taught delegates how to address the doubts of their peers during seemingly spontaneous, casual conversations. Also, the speeches and films about the candidate, shown during the convention, included subtle appeals and cues designed to resolve conflicting attitudes. In essence, these measures resembled the strate- gies that savvy marketers use in similar situations. Of course, George and many others with similar, initial conflicting attitudes were unaware that these strategic communications were taking place during the convention.

Causality and Attribution Learning Objective 6.7 To understand how

people assign causality to events.

attribution theory A theory focused on how people assign causa lity to events and form or alter their attitudes after assessing their own or other people’s behavior.

self-perception attribution A mental interpretation that reflects the way people see themselves when they form cau- salities about prior events, which consists of internal and external attributions.

Attribution theory explains how people assign causality (e.g., blame or credit) to events, on the basis of either their own behavior or the behavior of others.24 In other words, a person might say, “I contributed to the American Red Cross because it really helps people in need,” or “He tried to persuade me to buy an iPhone, rather than a Galaxy, because he’d make a bigger commission.” In attribution theory, the underlying question is why: “Why did I do this?” “Why did he try to get me to switch brands?” Making inferences about one’s own or another’s behavior is an important factor in understanding attitude formation and change.

Many companies sponsor socially beneficial events and causes because they hope that consumers will attribute their efforts to “genuine concern.” Research indicates that better “matches” between sponsors and events or causes result in more favorable consumer attribu- tions . Evidence also suggests that consumers are willing to reward high-effort firms (i.e., they will pay more for and/or evaluate the product higher) if they feel that the company has made an extra effort to make better products or provide better consumer services. 25

SELF-PERCEPTION ATTRIBUTIONS Self-perception attribution reflects the way people see themselves in the causalities they form about prior behaviors and the attitudes they develop thereafter. It is useful to distinguish

 

 

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 161

between internal and external attributions. Let us assume that Anna has just used video-editing software for the first time and her video of her South American vacation was well liked by the members of her photography club. After receiving the compliments, if Anna had thought, “I’m really a natural at editing my digital videos,” her statement would reflect an internal attribu- tion, because she had given herself credit for the outcome (e.g., her ability, her skill, or her effort). In contrast, if Anna concluded that his work was due to a user-friendly video-editing program, the assistance of another club member, or just “luck,” she would be making an external attribution. In the external attribution Anna might think, “My great video is beginner’s luck,” whereas in the internal attribution she might think, “The video is good because of me.”

Marketers can feature either internal or external attributions in promotions. For instance, ads for video-editing software should persuade users to internalize their successful use of the software. If they attribute their photos’ quality to their skills rather than the software’s capabilities, they would probably buy its new versions. Alternatively, if users externalize their success, they would attribute it to beginner’s luck, which is unrelated to the software itself and unlikely to get them to buy updates and advanced editions. Research indicated that appealing to internal attributions persuaded consumers to consider buying the products advertised. 26

According to the principle of defensive attribution, people generally accept (or take) credit for success (internal attribution), but assign failure to others or outside events (external attribution). Thus, promotional messages should encourage consumers to perceive themselves as the reasons for their success and reassure them that the advertised products will always make them feel this way. Similarly, persuasive messages aimed at getting people to abandon and refrain from socially undesirable behavior should appeal to internal attributions.

FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE The foot-in-the-door technique consists of getting people to agree to large requests after convincing them to agree to a small and modest request first. The rationale behind this method is that agreeing to a small request creates a bond between the requester and the requestee. After fulfilling a modest request, the requestee is likely to fulfill a larger request because of several reasons. First, the requestee does not want to disappoint the requestor, with whom he feels he has bonded. Second, the requestee actually becomes interested in the objective of the request. As discussed earlier, cognitive dissonance theory indicates that people tend to develop attitudes to justify prior actions. People’s compliance with minor requests and sub- sequent compliance with more substantial requests is based on the premise that individuals look at their prior behavior (e.g., compliance with minor requests) and conclude that they are the kind of people who generally agree to requests from others (i.e., an internal attributions). For example, someone who has donated $25 to the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research is more likely to make a subsequent $100 donation than a person who was asked initially to donate $100. The first request of $25 was afoot in the door, and paved the way toward a more substantial request.

Some research into the foot-in-the-door technique focused on understanding how specific incentives (e.g., cents-off coupons of varying amounts) influence consumer attitudes and subsequent purchase behavior. Researchers discovered that different-size incentives created different degrees of internal attribution, which, in turn, led to different amounts of atti- tude change. For instance, individuals who tried brands without any inducements, or bought brands repeatedly, formed increasingly positive attitudes toward the brands (e.g., “I buy this brand because I like it”). In contrast, individuals who received samples were less likely to form positive attitudes about the brands they had tried (e.g., “I tried this brand because it was free”).

Contrary to expectations, bigger incentives do not always lead to positive attitude changes. If an incentive is too big, marketers run the risk that consumers will externalize the cause of their behavior to the incentive (i.e., “I did it because I got a large incentive, but I didn’t really like the product”) and will be less likely to change their attitudes and pur- chase the brand again. Instead, what seems most effective are moderate incentives, which are significant enough to stimulate initial purchase of the brand, but still small enough to

 

 

162 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

encourage consumers to internalize their positive usage experiences and create positive atti- tude changes. 27

In contrast with the foot-in-the-door technique is the door-in-the-face technique, in which a large, costly first request that is likely to be refused is followed by a second, more realistic, and less costly request. In certain situations, this technique may be more effective than the foot-in-the-door technique.28

ATTRIBUTIONS TOWARD OTHERS In addition to understanding why people develop causalities about their own behaviors, it is important to understand how they make attributions toward others. As already stated, every time a person asks “Why?” about a statement or action of another or other persons (whether family members, peers, salespeople, or marketers), attribution theory applies. To illustrate, in evaluating the words or deeds of, say, a salesperson, a consumer tries to determine whether the salesperson’s motives are in his best interests. If he views the sales- person’s motives favorably, the consumer is likely to respond accordingly. Otherwise, the consumer is likely to reject the salesperson’s words and purchase elsewhere. Suppose, for example, that a consumer orders a new Canon digital point-and-shoot camera from Amazon. com. Because the consumer is going on vacation, she agrees to pay for next-day delivery by FedEx, instead of relying on Amazon’s free five-day shipping. If the package with the camera does not arrive when it should, the consumer can attribute the failure to either one or both “others.” That is, she can blame Amazon (failing to get the product out on time), FedEx (failing to deliver the package on time), or both (a dual failure). Alternatively, if the weather was very bad, she might attribute the delivery failure to the weather and to neither Amazon nor FedEx.

ATTRIBUTIONS TOWARD OBJECTS Researchers have also studied consumers’ attributions toward objects, which, in the context of marketing, are the products and services purchased. Specifically, when consumers wish to find out why a product met or failed to meet their expectations, they can attribute the prod- uct’s successful or unsatisfactory performance to the product itself, to themselves, to other people or situations, or to some combination of these factors . To recap an earlier example, when Anna successfully edited a video of her vacation, she could attribute that success to the software (product attribution), to her own skill (self or internal attribution), to a fellow member in her photo club who helped her (external attribution), or to all three.

ANALYZING SELF-ATTRIBUTIONS After people have made attributions about a product’s performance or a person’s words or actions, they often attempt to figure out whether the inferences they have made were correct. To illustrate, let’s consider two scenarios: (1) an alumnus who is considering donating a large sum of money to the university where he earned his MBA and (2) an amateur photographer who is contemplating buying a new and expensive photo printer. Both situations require a substantial outlay of funds, and the fact that the donation and the purchase are considered demonstrates that the two persons have made initial attributions of causality: the alumnus believes that the donation will improve the MBA program’s reputation and growth, and the photographer believes that the printer will enhance the quality of her work. Both persons are likely to seek reinforcement for their initial attributions. Researchers have identified three factors that the persons are likely to consider when doing so: distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. Table 6.4 explains these factors and describes the photographer and alumnus’s hypothetical deliberations. 29

 

 

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E FoRmATion And CHAng E 163

TABLE 6.4 Reviewing Self-Attributions

Scenario Distinctiveness Consistency Over Time and Varied Situations Consensus

An alumnus considering donating money to his MBA program

How distinctive will my contribution be? Do many others make larger donations? Will I become part of a select group if I donate?

Can I afford to donate regularly? Will I be able to contribute money if the university asks for a special

If I ask my friends, would most of them agree that I should make a donation, or will their opinions vary? donation (e.g., for building a new

student center)?

An amateur photographer who sees that, when printed on the latest HP printer, her photos look much better

Am I the only one who sees this marked difference, or do others notice the same?

Will I see the same superiority of the HP printer when I take other photos? Or is the advantage I see mostly a function of what this particular photo shows?

If I ask my friends, would most of them agree that my pictures look better when printed on the HP printer, or would some notice the difference and others not?

Summary • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Learning Objective 6.1: To understand how consumers’ attitudes influence their decision-making.

An attitude is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way toward a given object. In the con- text of consumer behavior, the term object is interpreted broadly to include the product, brand, service, price, package, advertise- ment, promotional medium, retailer selling the product, and many other aspects. Attitudes are learned from direct experience with the product, word-of-mouth, exposure to mass media, and other information sources. Attitudes reflect either favorable or unfavor- able evaluations of the attitude object and they motivate consumers either to buy or not to buy particular products or brands. Consum- ers buy products toward which they have favorable inclinations, so marketers must ensure that consumers maintain positive attitudes following purchases and remain loyal customers.

Attitudes are relatively consistent with the behavior they reflect. However, despite their consistency, attitudes are not neces- sarily permanent; they do change, and sometimes even frequently. Attitudes occur within and are affected by situations, events, or circumstances that influence the relationship between attitudes and behavior. Personality traits significantly influence attitudes.

Learning Objective 6.2: To understand the tri -component attitude model.

The tri-component attitude model proposes that attitudes con- sist of three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component represents the knowledge and perceptions of the features of an attitude object. The affective component reflects emotions and feelings, which are considered evaluations, because they capture the person’s global assessment of the atti- tude object. The conative component is the likelihood that an individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a par- ticular way with regard to the attitude object (i.e., consumer’s intention to buy).

Learning Objective 6.3: To understand how to apply multiattribute models to change consumers’ attitudes.

Multiattribute attribute models portray consumers’ attitudes as func- tions of their assessments of the objects’ prominent features. These multiattribute models include the attitude-toward-object model, the attitude-toward-behavior model, the theory of reasoned action, the theory of trying to consume, and the attitude-toward-the-ad model. Multiattribute models can be used when adding product attributes, changing consumers’ perceptions of attributes, and developing new products.

Learning Objective 6.4: To understand how to alter consumers’ attitudes by making particular needs prominent.

Altering attitudes according to consumer motivations is termed the functional approach, which classifies attitudes into four functions: the utilitarian, ego-defensive, value-expressive, and knowledge functions. Associating a brand with a well-liked object can also alter attitudes.

Learning Objective 6.5: To understand cognitive elaboration and the two routes to persuasion.

Attitudes can sometimes be changed by either one of two different routes to persuasion, depending on the degree of cognitive elabora- tion used when consumers process information. The central route requires extensive thought and cognitive processing, and is typi- cally employed in situations where consumers are highly involved and perceive a lot of risk regarding the purchase considered. The peripheral route, which requires relatively little thought and infor- mation processing, occurs during less important purchases.

Learning Objective 6.6: To understand cognitive dissonance and resolving cognitive conflicts.

In most cases, attitudes precede and guide behavior. Sometimes, consumers act first and only afterward do they develop attitudes

 

 

164 PART ii • THE Consum ERAs An indi ViduAL

about actions already undertaken, which creates conf licting thoughts about the attitude object known as cognitive dissonance. Because important purchase decisions (i.e., buying a new home) require compromise and choices among similar alternatives, post-purchase conflicts are common. Marketers must ensure that customers resolve cognitive conflicts by changing their customers’ attitudes to conform to their behavior.

Learning Objective 6.7: To understand how people assign causal- ity to events.

Review and Discussion Questions 6.1. Explain how situational factors influence the degree of consis-

tency between attitudes and behavior.

6.2. Because attitudes are learned predispositions to respond in particular ways, why don’t marketers measure only purchase behavior and ignore attitudes?

6.3. Explain a person’s attitude toward visiting Disney World in terms of the tri-component attitude model.

6.4. How can the marketer of a “nicotine patch” (a device that assists individuals to quit smoking) use the theory of trying to consume? Using this theory, identify two segments of smokers that the marketer should target and explain how to do so.

6.5. Explain how the product manager of a breakfast cereal change consumer attitudes toward the company’s brand by (a) chang- ing beliefs about the brand, (b) changing beliefs about com pet- ing brands, (c) changing the relative evaluation of attributes, and (d) adding an attribute.

Hands-on Assignments 6.9. Find two print ads, one illustrating the affective component

and the other illustrating the cognitive component. Discuss each ad in the context of the tri-component model. Why has each marketer taken the approach it did?

6.10. What sources influenced your attitude about this course before it started? Has your initial attitude changed since the course started? If so, how?

6.11. Describe a situation in which you acquired an attitude toward a new product through exposure to an advertisement.

Key Terms

People assign causality (i.e., blame or credit) to events, their own behaviors, and the behaviors of others. The way people see them- selves is reflected in the causalities they form about prior behav- iors and the attitudes they develop thereafter. In trying to change consumption-related attitudes, especially with regard to products that require self-participation, marketers must understand how people make attributions, toward others and objects, and also how they analyze their own attributions.

6.6. The Department of Transportation of a large city is launch- ing an advertising campaign that encourages people to switch from private cars to mass transit. How can the department use the following strategies to change commuters’ attitudes: (a) changing the basic motivational function, (b) changing beliefs about public transportation, (c) using self-perception theory, and (d) using cognitive dissonance.

6. 7. Should the marketer of a popular computer graphics program prefer consumers to make internal or external attributions? Explain your answer.

6.8. A college student has just purchased a new Apple iPad. What factors might cause the student to experience post-purchase dissonance? How might the student try to overcome it? How can the retailer who sold the computer help reduce the stu- dent’s dissonance? How can the computer’s manufacturer help?

Describe a situation in which you formed an attitude toward a product or brand on the basis of personal influence.

6.12. Find advertisements that illustrate each of the four motiva- tional functions of attitudes. Describe how each ad either rein- forces an existing attitude or is aimed at changing an attitude.

6.13. Think back to the time when you were selecting a college. Did you experience dissonance after you had made a deci- sion? Why or why not? If you did experience dissonance, how did you resolve it?

• Affective component 146 • Central route to persuasion 158 • Door-in-the-face technique 162 Ego-defensive function 156 • Attitude 142 •

• Attitude-toward-behavior model154 • • Attitude-toward-object model150 • • Attitude-toward-the-ad model155 • • Attitudes-toward-social-media posts 156 • • Attribution theory 160 •

Cognitive component 146 Cognitive dissonance 159 Comparative ads 158 Comparative advertising 150 Conative component 147 Defensive attribution 161

• • • • • •

Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) 158

Extensive problem solving 158 Foot-in-the-door technique 161 Functional approach 156 High-involvement purchases 158

 

 

CHAPTER 6 • Consum ER ATiiTud E Fo RmATion And CHAng E 165

• Know ledge function 157 • Peripheral route to persuasion 158 • Tri-component attitude model145 • Likert scale 147 • Post-purchase dissonance 159 • Two-sided message 150 • Limited problem solving 158 • Self-perception attribution 160 • Utilitarian function 156 • Low-involvement purchases 158 • Semantic differential scale 147 • Value-expressive function 157 • Multiattribute attitude models 150 • Theory of reasoned action (TRA) 155 • Word-of-mouth 142 • Need for cognition 144 • Theory of trying to consume 155